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The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults, and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High‐functioning Autism
Abstract
In 1997 in this Journal we published the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, as a measure of adult “mentalising”. Whilst that test succeeded in discriminating a group of adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high‐functioning autism (HFA) from controls, it suffered from several psychometric problems. In this paper these limitations are rectified by revising the test. The Revised Eyes Test was administered to a group of adults with AS or HFA ( N = 15) and again discriminated these from a large number of normal controls ( N = 239) drawn from different samples. In both the clinical and control groups the Eyes Test was inversely correlated with the Autism Spectrum Quotient (the AQ), a measure of autistic traits in adults of normal intelligence. The Revised Eyes Test has improved power to detect subtle individual differences in social sensitivity.
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In the citing paper
“Likewise, scores in the RMET are similar to those seen in other publications with autistic participants [41, 71].”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“deficits in the popular ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task (RMET) [41] were unrelated to the presence of self-injury, its range or frequency or its use for the functional purpose of communicating with others”
From A 'choice', an 'addiction', a way 'out of the lost': Exploring self-injury in autistic people without intellectual disability (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Another study also reported that 8 weeks of cognitive-based compassion training could significantly enhance the accuracy in inferring others' mental states in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test [39] and increased the neural activation in the inferior frontal gyrus and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, which are important for the theory of mind [40].”
From Potential therapeutic effects of meditation for treating affective dysregulation (2014) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“These ToM tasks measure the ability to employ mental states in explanations and predictions of behavior and as such can be distinguished from tasks that may only require emotion recognition (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Oakley et al., 2016), or only require empathic sharing of mental states (e.g., Quesque et al., 2024; Reniers et al., 2011).”
From Longitudinal development of theory of mind in adolescence and its associations with fiction reading experience. (2025) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“While the Eyes Test is proposed to measure a single construct (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), as noted previously others have suggested that there might be subscales composed of those items that represent positive, negative, and neutral affect (Harkness et al., 2005; Maurage et al., 2011; Konrath et al., 2014).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Eyes Test was designed to measure the first stage of ToM attribution, which is identifying the relevant mental state of the stimulus (as opposed to the second stage; inferring the content of that mental state; see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Of note, this version of the Eyes Test is considered superior to earlier versions, largely on the grounds of reliability and validity evidence (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test is a popular measure of individual differences in Theory of Mind capabilities (ToM; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The test distinguishes many clinical populations (most often individuals on the autistic spectrum) from unimpaired control participants in their ToM capabilities.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“With the exception of item 17, the most frequently chosen response option was the correct response option (see Table A1 in Supplementary Materials), which is supported by prior studies of normal populations (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Harkness et al., 2005).”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“First, Baron-Cohen and colleagues did not discuss purposely including items with different affects and they never proposed that the affect of the target word could be used to create subscales or should bias performance on the test, so in our analyses we operated under the assumption that there was no preference in terms of which items were the most appropriate for the measure of ToM.”
From A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: toward a brief form for research and applied settings (2015) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Based on the effect size (d = 1.27) between ASD and control participants on the RMET reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001), we determined that a sample size of 19 participants per group would provide a power of 0.8 to detect group differences using an independent t test and α < .05.”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Its validity is supported by the poor performance of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on the task (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001), a group that has known ToM impairments (Castelli, Frith, Happé, & Frith, 2002).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The alexithymic group also performed significantly worse than the control participants reported in Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al. (2001): N = 225, M = 27.02, SD = 3.67; independent samples t test: t(237) = 2.31, p = .021, d = 0.638, 95% CI for d [0.094, 1.180]”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“the original set of 36 items was split into two equally difficult halves (as in Samur et al., 2018, Experiment 3), based on the item accuracy reported for university students (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)”
From The effects of reading narrative fiction on social and moral cognition (2021) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“The present score after placebo administration is also slightly higher than ASD norms for RMET performance (61%).49”
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“Studies using the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test’ [16] show that the eye region is informative of the mental state, i.”
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“(9), the Eyes Test performance was not related to general intellectual functions (IQ) in the investigated range.”
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“For the present study the revised version of the RMET was used.(30) In total, 36 black-and-white photographs of the eyes region of different human faces were presented.”
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“The most commonly used ToM tasks were Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET; [27]) and the Faux Pas Recognition Test [28].”
MethodGonzález-Gadea, M. L., Báez, S., Torralva, T., Castellanos, F. X., Rattazzi, A., Bein, V., Rogg, K., Manes, F. F., & Ibáñez, A. M. (2012) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.11.009 · Cited by 100
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“The adult version [30] consists of 28 blackand-white photographs of the eye region of the face of individual men and women.”
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Kuypers, K. P. C., de la Torre, R., Farre, M., Yubero-Lahoz, S., Dziobek, I., Van den Bos, W., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100719 · Cited by 88
“The performance level in the RMET of participants in the present study was comparable to other studies using healthy controls of comparable age [25,26,46] and higher compared to Hysek et al.”
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“It is also possible to draw inferences about others’ mental states and their focus of attention by looking at their eyes and following their direction of gaze (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001a; Bayliss and Tipper 2005, 2006).”
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“Understanding appraisals (Baron-Cohen et al. 1986; Lawson et al. 2004) and intuitive physics (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001b) can also be used to determine whether or not the system is capable of understanding cause and effect relationships, which is based on higher-level cognitive mechanisms.”
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A developmental approach to mentalizing communities: I. A model for social change
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“behind facial expressions, ( Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ) expressions.”
Do the Eyes Have It? Inferring Mental States From Animated Faces in Autism
Back, E., Ropar, D., & Mitchell, P. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01005.x · Cited by 89
HEAD GESTURES, GAZE AND THE PRINCIPLES OF CONVERSATIONAL STRUCTURE
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Jahja, R., van Spronsen, F. J., de Sonneville, L. M. J., van der Meere, J. J., Bosch, A. M., Hollak, C. E. M., Rubio‐Gozalbo, M. E., Brouwers, M. C. G. J., Hofstede, F. C., de Vries, M. C., et al. (2016) · Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease · doi:10.1007/s10545-016-9918-0 · Cited by 93
“T hr ee in co m pl et e lif et im e Ph e b n = 21 c n = 11 d n = 52 e n = 53 (FPT; Baron-Cohen et al 1999) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes (RME-) task (Baron-Cohen et al 2001) measure ToM.”
MethodUnsupervised data-driven stratification of mentalizing heterogeneity in autism
Lombardo, M. V., Lai, M., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Holt, R., Allison, C. L., Smith, P. L., Chakrabarti, B., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Suckling, J., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep35333 · Cited by 94
“In the current work, we focus on components of mentalizing measured via a widely used task that involves explicit recognition of complex emotional and mental states simply from looking at the eye region of the face–the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) 23,24 .”
Self-citationTheory of Mind and Motion Perception in Schizophrenia.
Kelemen, O., Erdélyi, R., Pataki, I., Benedek, G., Janka, Z., & Kéri, S. (2005) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.4.494 · Cited by 89
Does oxytocin affect mind-reading? A replication study
Radke, S., & de Bruijn, E. R. A. (2015) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.06.006 · Cited by 82
“The RMET comprised 36 photographs depicting the eye region of 36 Caucasian posers (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
MethodA functional MRI study of Theory of Mind in euthymic bipolar disorder patients
Malhi, G. S., Lagopoulos, J., Das, P., Moss, K., Berk, M., & Coulston, C. M. (2008) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00643.x · Cited by 89
Unconscious discrimination of social cues from eye whites in infants
Jessen, S., & Großmann, T. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1411333111 · Cited by 94
“E play a key role in human social encounters, as they are critically involved in perceiving others as having minds (1), in attributing mental states to others (2), and in social coordination during face-to-face interactions (3).”
BackgroundInfluentialGibson, C. M., Penn, D. L., Smedley, K. L., Leserman, J., Elliott, T., & Pedersen, C. A. (2014) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.04.009 · Cited by 88
“…measures included: The Emotion Recognition40 (ER-40; Kohler et al., 2004), Theory of Mind Picture Stories Task (Brune, 2003), The Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983), The Trustworthiness Task (Adolphs et al., 1998), The Ambiguous…”
BackgroundCulture in social neuroscience: A review
Rule, N. O., Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2012) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2012.695293 · Cited by 90
“Using a second measure of mental-state inference (the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill, Raste, & Plumb, 2001 ), Adams et al.”
MethodModeling the emergence of vowel harmony through iterated learning
Mailhot, F. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573745.003.0012 · Cited by 87
Effort shapes social cognition and behaviour: A neuro-cognitive framework
Contreras-Huerta, L. S., Pisauro, M. A., & Apps, M. A. J. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.08.003 · Cited by 91
The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression
Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.482 · Cited by 102
Narrative transportation: How stories shape how we see ourselves and the world
Green, M. C., & Appel, M. (2024) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.03.002 · Cited by 133
Theory of mind in Asperger's syndrome, schizophrenia and personality disordered forensic patients
Murphy, D. (2006) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800444000182 · Cited by 88
“Originally described by Baron-Cohen (1995), developed by Baron-Cohen et al. (1997), and revised by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001), the revised eyes task consists of one practice item and 36 test items.”
MethodO’Connor, K., Hamm, J. P., & Kirk, I. J. (2007) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.12.001 · Cited by 94
Romero‐Martínez, Á., Lila, M., Sariñana‐González, P., González‐Bono, E., & Moya‐Albiol, L. (2013) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21490 · Cited by 96
Hoffmann, F., Koehne, S., Steinbeis, N., Dziobek, I., & Singer, T. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2609-0 · Cited by 92
“Study 1 found in line with the literature, that individuals with ASD show deficits in ToM (Baron-Cohen et al. 1985, 2001; Castelli et al. 2002; Dziobek et al. 2006; Happé 1994; Klin 2000).”
ResultKidd, D., & Castano, E. (2019) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550618775410 · Cited by 87
“The RMET (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) contains 36 trials in which participants select which of the four emotion terms best matches an image of an actor’s eyes.”
BackgroundMethodAtypical functional brain connectivity during rest in autism spectrum disorders
Doyle‐Thomas, K. A. R., Lee, W., Foster, N. E. V., Tryfon, A., Ouimet, T., Hyde, K. L., Evans, A. C., Lewis, J. D., Zwaigenbaum, L., Anagnostou, E. A., et al. (2015) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.24391 · Cited by 101
Skuse, D., Printzlau, F. A. B., & Wolstencroft, J. (2018) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-63233-3.00024-5 · Cited by 93
Looking for the lighthouse: A systematic review of advanced theory-of-mind tests beyond preschool
Osterhaus, C., & Bosacki, S. L. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101021 · Cited by 94
Caletti, E., Paoli, R. A., Fiorentini, A., Cigliobianco, M., Zugno, E., Serati, M., Orsenigo, G., Grillo, P., Zago, S., Caldiroli, A., et al. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00661 · Cited by 96
Immersed in Virtual Worlds and Minds
Bormann, D., & Greitemeyer, T. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550615578177 · Cited by 87
Mitchell, J. M., Arcuni, P. A., Weinstein, D., & Woolley, J. D. (2016) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000213 · Cited by 82
“Subjects view 28 black and white photographs displaying the eye region of faces, and select what each person is ‘‘thinking or feeling’’ from 4 options (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundWhole-brain functional hypoconnectivity as an endophenotype of autism in adolescents
Moseley, R. L., Ypma, R. J. F., Holt, R., Floris, D. L., Chura, L. R., Spencer, M. D., Baron‐Cohen, S., Suckling, J., Bullmore, E. T., & Rubinov, M. (2015) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2015.07.015 · Cited by 85
“Siblings and controls scored significantly lower in number of autistic traits as measured on the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b), and on the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) (Rutter et al., 2003), they scored below the cut-off that differentiates them…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationCognitive and affective theory of mind in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease
Heitz, C., Noblet, V., Phillipps, C., Cretin, B., Vogt, N., Philippi, N., Kemp, J., Petigny, X. D., Bilger, M., Demuynck, C., et al. (2016) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-016-0179-9 · Cited by 93
“We used the standardized scores of the mini-SEA [46] for the FPR test and Ekman’s Facial Emotion Recognition test, and Baron-Cohen’s standardised scores [44] were used for the RME test.”
MethodInsights From fMRI Studies Into Ingroup Bias
Molenberghs, P., & Louis, W. R. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01868 · Cited by 90
“They presented Japanese and white American participants with a cross-cultural version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundLópez-Moríñigo, J.-D., Ajnakina, O., Martínez, A. S.-E., Escobedo-Aedo, P. J., Ruiz-Ruano, V. G., Sánchez-Alonso, S., Mata-Iturralde, L., Muñoz-Lorenzo, L., Ochoa, S., Baca‐García, E., et al. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720003384 · Cited by 87
Social emotional functioning and cognitive styles in eating disorders
Harrison, A., Tchanturia, K., Naumann, U., & Treasure, J. L. (2011) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.2011.02026.x · Cited by 86
“All set shifting (Brixton Task number of errors, WCST number of perseverative errors), coherence (FPT mean number of frames required to identify pictures, GEFT median response latency, RCFT central coherence index), and social emotional (Stroop social attentional bias, Stroop angry-threat attentional bias and Reading…”
MethodInfluentialTheory of mind and perceptual context‐processing in schizophrenia
Uhlhaas, P. J., Phillips, W. A., Schenkel, L. S., & Silverstein, S. M. (2006) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800444000272 · Cited by 90
“Data from the initial study by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) showed that performance on the Eyes Test was not correlated with IQ in the general population nor in a sample of high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome.”
MethodResultBailey, A. J., Braeutigam, S., Jousmäki, V., & Swithenby, S. J. (2005) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04061.x · Cited by 86
“…to judge complex mental states from the eyes is the core face processing deficit in individuals on the autistic spectrum (Adolphs et al., 2001; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), there are also reports of impairments in identity recognition (Klin et al., 1999) and in the ability to judge eye gaze…”
BackgroundSocial Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis: a Meta-Analysis
Bora, E., Özakbaş, S., Velakoulis, D., & Walterfang, M. (2016) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9320-6 · Cited by 83
“Different ToM tasks have been utilized across studies, most commonly faux pas recognition (the task involves recognizing faux pas in series of short stories) and Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET); other tasks have included Happe stories and different versions of false belief and intention tasks (Baron-Cohen et…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDysregulated oscillatory connectivity in the visual system in autism spectrum disorder
Seymour, R. A., Rippon, G., Gooding-Williams, G., Schoffelen, J. M., & Kessler, K. (2019) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awz214 · Cited by 84
Taste for Competition and the Gender Gap Among Young Business ProfessionalsPreprint
Reuben, E., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2677298 · Cited by 188
“The second variable is the participants’ score in the “reading the mind in the eyes” test of Baron-Cohen et al. (2001), which consists of correctly recognizing the emotions of various individuals by looking at pictures of their eyes.”
BackgroundDefault Mode Hypoconnectivity Underlies a Sex-Related Autism Spectrum
Ypma, R. J. F., Moseley, R. L., Holt, R., Rughooputh, N., Floris, D. L., Chura, L. R., Spencer, M. D., Baron‐Cohen, S., Suckling, J., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.04.006 · Cited by 88
“Data were collected for all CFSA participants on performance on the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” mentalizing task (38,56).”
Self-citationMartínez, G., Danset-Alexandre, C., Mam-Lam-Fook, C., Bendjemaa, N., Gaillard, R., Garel, P., Dziobek, I., Amado, I., & Krebs, M. (2017) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.01.012 · Cited by 104
“…were evaluated with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS-24) (Ventura et al., 1993), with the Thought Language and Communication Scale (TLC) (Andreasen, 1986) for disorganization symptoms and completed the self-administered questionnaire Autism Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron‐Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 241-251
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W4294333904
- Cited by
- 4,555
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 223 · 2025: 261 · 2024: 273 · 2023: 268 · 2022: 303 · 2021: 350 · 2020: 381 · 2019: 320 · 2018: 299 · 2017: 292 · 2016: 230 · 2015: 262 · 2014: 193 · 2013: 211 · 2012: 143
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, mentalization, theory of mind, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, autism spectrum disorder, test revision, psychometric properties, Autism Spectrum Quotient, autistic traits, social sensitivity, adults
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