Beyond the dichotomy: incarceration dosage and mental health
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The findings from a growing body of research reveal that incarceration is detrimental for both physical and mental health. Incarceration, however, is typically conceptualized and operationalized as a dichotomy; individuals either have, or have not, been incarcerated. Considering that incarceration can range from one day to several years, a dichotomous measure may be overlooking important variations across lengths of exposure. In addition, most inmates are incarcerated more than once. In this study, we help to fill this gap by examining the relationship between incarceration dosage, measured as time served and number of spells, and mental health among a sample of young adults from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997. By using fixed‐effects modeling, we find that the number of spells and the months incarcerated are positively related to mental health symptoms and the likelihood of depression. The association, however, is contingent on whether a respondent is currently or formerly incarcerated. Among current inmates, more time served is expected to improve mental health and the number of spells is unrelated to either outcome.
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The improvements in mental health over the strict lockdown period suggest a process of adaptation similar to literature on other types of isolation, such as incarceration where depression levels can stabilise or decrease as new coping strategies emerge.
“The improvements in mental health over this strict lockdown period suggest a process of adaptation that bears similarities to literature on other types of isolation: for example, some studies of incarceration have shown that depression levels can stabilise and even decrease month after month as new coping strategies emerge.29”
From Trajectories of anxiety and depressive symptoms during enforced isolation due to COVID-19 in England: a longitudinal observational study (2021) · cites this paper as [29]
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Fahmy, C., Testa, A. M., Woodward, K. P., & Jackson, D. B. (2023) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2023.2188620 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Gruhn, M. A., Miller, A. B., Machlin, L., Motton, S. N., Thinzar, C. E., & Sheridan, M. A. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00963-9 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Duration in Immigration Detention and Health Harms
Saadi, A., Patler, C. C., & Langer, P. D. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.56164 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Fatherhood, Behavioral Health, and Criminal Legal System Contact over the Life Course
McKay, T. E., & Tadros, E. (2022) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465221139246 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Porter, L. C., Kozlowski, M., & Lee, H. E. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113815 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationMass incarceration and cognitive impairment in older adults: Setting a research agenda
Testa, A. M., Jackson, D. B., Kaufmann, C. N., Spira, A. P., & Thorpe, R. J. (2023) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.18355 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Solitary confinement and the well-being of people in prison
Wright, K. A., Young, J. T. N., Matekel, C. G., Infante, A. A., Gifford, F. E., Meyers, T. J., & Morse, S. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116224 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Undoing resilience: immigrant status and poor health following incarceration
Kuper, J. L., & Turanovic, J. (2021) · Health & Justice · doi:10.1186/s40352-021-00129-7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sexual Satisfaction and Mental Health in Prison Inmates
Carcedo, R. J., Perlman, D., Fernández-Rouco, N., Perez, F. V., & Hervalejo, D. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8050705 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Semenza, D. C., & Silver, I. A. (2022) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101963 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Debt Collection Pressure and Mental Health: Evidence from a Cohort of U.S. Young Adults
Rhodes, A. P., Dwyer, R. E., & Houle, J. N. (2024) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465241268477 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Langenhoven, R., Jordaan, J., & Hesselink, A. (2024) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2024.2372765 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Berg, M. T., Riley, K., Lei, M.-K., & Simons, R. L. (2024) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643241257065 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
McCuish, E., Bushway, S. D., Lussier, P., & Gushue, K. (2024) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102335 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Dark Tetrad and psychological distress among male violent offenders and male community adults
Oljača, M., Sadiković, S., Dinić, B. M., & Baić, V. (2021) · Primenjena psihologija · doi:10.19090/pp.2021.4.509-537 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Food Insecurity Among Older Adults with a History of Incarceration
Jordan, T., & Sneed, R. S. (2023) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648231152152 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Incarceration and cardiovascular health: Multiple mechanisms within an intersectional framework
Semenza, D. C., Testa, A., Jackson, D. B., & Vaughn, M. (2020) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101759 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Huebner, B. M., Pleggenkuhle, B., & Kras, K. R. (2020) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854820972747 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Nothing but a rope to hang yourself:” The toll of mass supervision on mental well-being
LeMasters, K. H., Camp, H., Benson, A., Corsi, C., Cullins, Z., & Brinkley‐Rubinstein, L. (2023) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2023.100269 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Life After Bars: A Narrative-Case Study of Ex-convicts
Bidola, V. R., Leon, R. D., Ignacio, E., Mori, M. J., Nicole, V. S., & Bernabe, J. (2024) · American Journal of Human Psychology · doi:10.54536/ajhp.v2i1.2554 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fallesen, P. (2021) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcab090 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Family social support during incarceration: implications for health upon release
Fahmy, C., & Testa, A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-11274-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Examining the Relationship Between Incarceration and Healthy Aging
Doherty, E. E., Bugbee, B. A., & Green, K. M. (2025) · Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology · doi:10.1007/s40865-025-00286-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Adjudication Under Cover: Compliance and Inequality in the Criminal Courts
Stitt, M. E. (2024) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/733928 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Suicides in state prisons in the United States: Highlighting gaps in data
LeMasters, K. H., Behne, M. F., Lao, J., Peterson, M., & Brinkley‐Rubinstein, L. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285729 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Gender-Affirming Psychiatric Care
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Liu, H., Mok, Y. C., Lau, K. L., & Hou, W. K. (2022) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2022.100352 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Liu, H., & Clark, B. (2023) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2023.102871 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ulmer, J. T., & Galvin, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278231194709 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Widdowson, A. O., & Kyser, A. M. (2024) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231225139 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Therapy with exonerated clients: review and recommendations
Heilbrun, K., Fishel, S., Lankford, C., & Ratkalkar, M. (2020) · Journal of Forensic Practice · doi:10.1108/jfp-02-2020-0004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Incarceration, polygenic risk, and depressive symptoms among males in late adulthood
Liu, H., Tanksley, P. T., Motz, R. T., Kail, R. M., & Barnes, J. C. (2021) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102683 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Niño, M., Harris, C. T., Angton, A., & Zhang, M. (2023) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2023.102073 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Waters, A. K., Cowell, M. M., Disbennett, M. E., Ziaii, S., Cuddeback, G. S., Velázquez, T., & Deinse, T. B. V. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/10439862231189418 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sapkota, D., Ogilvie, J., Thompson, C., Kuluk, A., & Dennison, S. M. (2024) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102246 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Prior incarceration and functional limitation trajectories in older adults
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Aigul, B., Akynkozha, Z., Murat, D., Rima, D., Marlen, T., & Beaver, K. M. (2024) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287241264229 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chapter 2. Stigma and Mental Health Inequities
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg02 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Deinse, T. B. V., Waters, A. K., Barton, K., Bloodworth, S., & Powell, N. K. (2025) · BMC Global and Public Health · doi:10.1186/s44263-025-00174-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The impacts of length of prison stay on recidivism of non-violent offenders in Oregon
Leymon, M. G., Campbell, C. M., Henning, K., & Renauer, B. (2022) · Journal of criminal justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.102002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mass Probation: Effects of Sentencing Severity on Mental Health for Black and White Individuals
LeMasters, K. H., Ross, R. K., Edwards, J. K., Lee, H. E., Robinson, W. R., Brinkley‐Rubinstein, L., Delamater, P. L., & Pence, B. W. (2023) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000001678 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Racial Disparities in the Relationship Between Parental Incarceration and Childhood Obesity
Li, Q., & Colen, C. G. (2024) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-024-09908-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Young, B., & Lloyd, K. M. (2024) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548241292437 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg15 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Is the Healthcare Sector Part of a Carceral State?
Brooks, G. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58942-3_8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chapter 19. Affirming Gender Identity in the Setting of Incarceration
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg19 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Siennick, S. E., & Widdowson, A. O. (2025) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278251344584 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pretorius, S. E., Jordaan, J., & Esterhuyse, K. G. F. (2025) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2025.2553883 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Higher education in prison is associated with reductions in depression and anxiety
Nguyen, V. D., Zhao, Q., & Koenigs, M. R. (2026) · Justice Opportunities and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/2997965x.2026.2647751 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Paternal Incarceration, Polygenic Scores, and Children’s Educational Attainment
Liu, H., & Clark, B. (2022) · Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology · doi:10.1007/s40865-022-00213-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Managerial Justice, Community Supervision, and Treatment Mandates
Mackey, B. J., Lee, J. A., Appleton, C. J., Skidmore, S., & Taxman, F. S. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197649138.013.22 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chapter 3. (Rethinking) the Neuroscience of Gender Identity
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg03 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg09 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg08 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Accused stripped of the power to elect to have trials before a jury of their peers
Boersig, J., Campbell, J., & Carmichael, S. (2021) · Current Issues in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/10345329.2020.1859967 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Therapy with Exonerated Clients: Domains of Need
Heilbrun, K., Lankford, C., Fishel, S., & Schwartz, J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77565-0_27 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Silver, I. A., & D’Amato, C. (2021) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2021.2006336 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Stacking punishment: The imposition of consecutive sentences in Pennsylvania
Galvin, M. A. (2022) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12587 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Modern Approaches to Addressing the Mass Incarceration of America's Mentally Ill Population
Bice, C., & Terry, A. N. (2023) · Academic Leadership Journal in Student Research · doi:10.58809/fcuy5269
Health and criminal justice system involvement among African American siblings
Beckley, A. L., Palmer, R. H. C., Rocque, M., & Whitfield, K. E. (2019) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100359
Chapter 23. Collecting and Analyzing Gender Identity Data to Enhance Your Practice
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg23
Chapter 25. Legal and Policy Considerations for Gender-Affirming Mental Health Care
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg25
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg14
Chapter 21. Psychiatric Evaluations in Support of Gender-Affirming Surgical Procedures
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg21
Chapter 24. Cultivating Inclusive and Gender-Affirming Mental Health Care Environments
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg24
Chapter 26. Transgender, Non-binary, and/or Gender-Expansive (TNG) Leaders
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg26
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg16
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg13
Chapter 22. Standardized Language and Nonstandard Identities
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg22
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg01
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg04
Chapter 7. Gender-Affirming Psychiatric Care for Asian American and Pacific Islander Communities
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg07
Chapter 17. Perinatal Psychiatry and Affirming Gender Identity in the Setting of Pregnancy
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg17
Chapter 5. Affirming and Intersectional Psychiatric Care for Two-Spirit People
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg05
(2023) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9781615379958.lg06
- Authors
- Porter, L. C., & DeMarco, L. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Porter, Lauren C.
- Venue
- Criminology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-12-22
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 136-156
- ISSN
- 0011-1384 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-9125
- OpenAlex
- W2906107632
- Cited by
- 122
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 18.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Criminology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Keywords
- incarceration, mental health, time served, depression, young adults, National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1997, former prisoners
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