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Cited by 1,116Social Media and PoliticsRace, History, and American SocietyGender, Feminism, and Media

#Ferguson: Digital protest, hashtag ethnography, and the racial politics of social media in the United States

Open access
BONILLA, YARIMAR, ROSA, JONATHAN·2015·American Ethnologist
DOI 10.1111/amet.12112
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Abstract

As thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of Ferguson, Missouri, to protest the fatal police shooting of unarmed African American teenager Michael Brown in the summer of 2014, news and commentary on the shooting, the protests, and the militarized response that followed circulated widely through social media networks. Through a theorization of hashtag usage, we discuss how and why social media platforms have become powerful sites for documenting and challenging episodes of police brutality and the misrepresentation of racialized bodies in mainstream media.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/amet.12112

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation
    § Can a hashtag become a field site?

    Social media create a distorted view of events, such that we only get the perspective of people who are already in our social network.

    “Social media create a distorted view of events, such that we only get the perspective of the people who are already in our social network (Garret and Resnick 2011; Pariser 2012; Sunstein 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Garret and Resnick 2011 source

      The paper’s opening discussion (page unavailable) describes a Digg news stream containing only articles voted for by a reader’s designated friends and warns that following only like-minded friends may prevent exposure to challenging articles. But it presents this as a conditional risk, not as an inevitable effect of social media or proof that people see only their existing network’s perspective; the paper also argues that personalization can increase exposure to diverse views. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Pariser 2012 source
    • cites Sunstein 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingreasoning
    § Hashtag activism versus "real" activism?

    Twitter users began using #NoAngel to highlight the mainstream media's inability to acknowledge the possibility of black victimhood or innocence.

    “In response, Twitter users began using the hashtag #NoAngel to highlight the mainstream media's inability to acknowledge the possibility of black victimhood or innocence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning
    § Hashtag activism versus "real" activism?

    Initial activism around Michael Brown revolved around the hashtag #HandsUpDontShoot, often accompanied by photos of individuals or groups of people with their hands up.

    “Initial activism around Michael Brown thus revolved around the hashtag #HandsUpDontShoot, often accompanied by photos of individuals or groups of people with their hands up.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Eyewitness reports said Michael Brown had his hands up in surrender and uttered 'don't shoot' before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.
  • Findingnone given
    § American Ethnologist

    Once Ferguson stabilized as an important news event, many began tweeting about the events without necessarily marking their posts with a hashtag.

    “However, once Ferguson had stabilized as an important news event, many began tweeting about the events without necessarily marking their posts with a hashtag.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Notes

    Twitter became a site in which to draw connections between what was taking place in Ferguson and state-sanctioned violence in other political contexts.

    “Twitter also became a site in which to draw connections between what was taking place in Ferguson and state-sanctioned violence in other political contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 17
  • May combine two claims. 11

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Notes

    During the Ferguson events, Antonio French experienced a surge in followers from around four thousand to 121 thousand in less than a month.

    “As an article in USA Today documents, over the course of the Ferguson events, Antonio French experienced a huge surge in popularity, going from around four thousand to 121 thousand followers in less than a month.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mandaro 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Notes

    In the context of #Ferguson, particular users such as Antonio French and Wesley Lowery emerged as key informants whose on-the-ground accounts were retweeted by thousands of Twitter users.

    “In the context of #Ferguson, particular users, such as Antonio French (alderman of St. Louis's 21st Ward) and Wesley Lowery (a reporter for the Washington Post), emerged as key informants whose on-theground accounts in Ferguson were retweeted by thousands of Twitter users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mandaro 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Notes

    The protests in Ferguson did not quickly fade.

    “The protests in Ferguson did not quickly fade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ferguson October 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning
    § Postscript

    Media coverage of Tamir Rice focused not on state action but on the worthiness of black bodies.

    “Once again, the media focused not on state action but on the worthiness of black bodies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Notes

    In August 2014, stories about Ferguson generated an average of 256 Facebook referrals compared with 2,106 referrals for stories about the Ice Bucket Challenge.

    “While there were, overall, many more news articles written about Ferguson than about the Ice Bucket Challenge in August of 2014, stories about Ferguson generated an average of 256 Facebook referrals compared with 2,106 referrals for stories about the Ice Bucket Challenge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McDermott 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Notes

    Many who tweeted about #Ferguson from outside Missouri eventually felt the need to visit Ferguson and noted a sharp difference between online and offline sites.

    “However, it is worth noting that many who tweeted about #Ferguson from outside Missouri eventually felt the need to visit the town of Ferguson and noted a sharp difference between these two sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Browne 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Cooper 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § American Ethnologist

    Social movements have long used media and technology to disseminate, escalate, and enlarge the scope of their struggles.

    “Social movements have long used media and technology to disseminate, escalate, and enlarge the scope of their struggles: Transistor radios allowed Cuban guerrilla fighters to transmit from the Sierra Maestra; television coverage transformed the riots in Selma, Alabama, into a national event; and e-mail accounts allowed Zapatistas in Chiapas to launch global communiqués.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § American Ethnologist

    #Ferguson allowed a message to get out, called global attention to a small corner of the world, and attempted to bring visibility and accountability to repressive forces.

    “#Ferguson did what many of these other tools did: It allowed a message to get out, called global attention to a small corner of the world, and at-tempted to bring visibility and accountability to repressive forces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Can a hashtag become a field site?

    Hashtags have the interdiscursive capacity to lasso accompanying texts and their indexical meanings as part of a frame.

    “In addition to these intertextual considerations, hashtags also have the interdiscursive capacity to lasso accompanying texts and their indexical meanings as part of a frame.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Can a hashtag become a field site?

    Social media platforms such as Twitter offer sites for collectively constructing counternarratives and reimagining group identities, whereas mainstream media contexts overdetermine, stereotype, or tokenize racialized populations.

    “Whereas in most mainstream media contexts the experiences of racialized populations are overdetermined, stereotyped, or tokenized, social media platforms such as Twitter offer sites for collectively constructing counternarratives and reimagining group identities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Hashtag activism versus "real" activism?

    Through #HandsUpDontShoot, users sought to call attention to the arbitrary nature of racialized policing, the vulnerability of black bodies, and the problematic ways in which blackness is perceived as a constant threat.

    “Through this campaign, users sought to call attention to the arbitrary nature of racialized policing, the vulnerability of black bodies, and the problematic ways in which blackness is perceived as a constant threat.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § Can a hashtag become a field site?

    Hashtags have the intertextual potential to link a broad range of tweets on a given topic or disparate topics as part of an intertextual chain, regardless of whether these tweets have anything to do with one another.

    “In addition, hashtags have the intertextual potential to link a broad range of tweets on a given topic or disparate topics as part of an intertextual chain, regardless of whether, from a given perspective, these tweets have anything to do with one another.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § American Ethnologist

    One difference between Twitter and earlier forms of technology is its multivocality and dialogicality.

    “One of the differences between Twitter and these earlier forms of technology, however, is its multivocality and dialogicality (Bakhtin 1981).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bakhtin 1981

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § American Ethnologist

    The news surrounding Michael Brown's death dominated Twitter much more than Facebook, partly because of heightened temporality.

    “It was partly because of this heightened temporality that, as others have noted, the news surrounding Michael Brown's death dominated Twitter much more than Facebook.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] du Toit, 1980, Ethics, Informed Consent, and Fieldwork, Journal of Anthropological Research source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Hashtag activism versus "real" activism?

    #BlackLivesMatter is not simply a general statement about the inherent value of black life in the face of state-sanctioned racial violence but also a reflection of the ways social media can become a site for the revaluation of black materiality.

    “It is important to understand #BlackLivesMatter not simply as a general statement about the inherent value of black life in the face of state-sanctioned racial violence but also as a reflection of the ways that social media can become a site for the revaluation of black materiality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Postscript

    This inversion underscores the significance of affirming that #BlackLivesMatter in a context where black people are disproportionately viewed as threats by state forces and mainstream institutions.

    “This inversion underscores the significance of affirming that #BlackLivesMatter in a context where they are disproportionately viewed as threats by state forces and mainstream institutions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Notes

    There are powerful coordinating relationships between digital and offline contexts such as #Ferguson and Ferguson proper, as well as between digital modalities such as Twitter and cellular text messages.

    “Thus, there are powerful coordinating relationships between digital and offline contexts such as #Ferguson and Ferguson proper as well as relationships between digital modalities such as the circulation of information via Twitter and cellular text messages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Notes

    Collectively, these interdiscursivities constitute the mediatized eventness of #Ferguson and the potential ways it can be recontextualized in relation to other events and genres of events.

    “Collectively, these interdiscursivities constitute the mediatized eventness of #Ferguson (Agha 2011) and the potential ways it can be recontextualized in relation to other such particular events and genres of events (Briggs and Bauman 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Agha 2011 source
    • cites Briggs and Bauman 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Notes

    The use of multiple, novel hashtags reflects savvy social media users' understanding that Twitter rewards novelty over raw numbers in its trending algorithms.

    “John Postill (2014) has noted the ways that the use of multiple, novel hashtags reflects savvy social media users' understanding that Twitter rewards novelty over raw numbers in its trending algorithms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Postill 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Postscript

    Wilson's reverse logic, sanctioned by the state, presents a narrative in which an unarmed teenager is a terrifying aggressor and an armed police officer is an innocent victim.

    “Wilson's reverse logic, sanctioned by the state, presents a narrative in which an unarmed teenager is a terrifying aggressor and an armed police officer is an innocent victim.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § All that is tweeted melts into air?

    Reactions to Michael Brown's death were fueled by accumulated frustrations over previously mediatized moments of injustice and guided by previous digital campaigns.

    “It is thus important to recognize that the reactions to the death of Michael Brown did not spark in a vacuum; they were fueled by accumulated frustrations over previously mediatized moments of injustice and guided by previous digital campaigns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Postscript

    State agents have distorted views of black Americans, especially teenagers, perceiving their bodies as looming threats and any objects they possess as weapons.

    “This event made clear once again state agents' distorted views of black Americans, especially teenagers-how their very bodies are perceived as looming, larger-than-life threats and how any objects in their possession (e.g., candies, sodas, toys, articles of clothing) are read as weapons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Hashtag activism versus "real" activism?

    The use of hashtags such as #HandsUpDontShoot, #IfTheyGunnedMeDown, and #NoAngel speaks to the long history of inaccurate and unfair portrayal of African Americans within mainstream media and to systematic profiling and victim blaming suffered by racialized bodies.

    “The use of hashtags such as #HandsUpDontShoot, #IfTheyGunnedMeDown, and #NoAngel speak to the long history of inaccurate and unfair portrayal of African Americans within mainstream media and to the systematic profiling and victim blaming suffered by racializied bodies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Notes

    The publicness and counterpublicness of #Ferguson must be understood as a performative context with the potential to be mobilized as part of social projects across individual and collective scales.

    “That is, the publicness and counterpublicness (Warner 2002) of #Ferguson must be understood as a performative context with the potential to be mobilized as part of social projects across individual and collective scales.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Warner 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Notes

    Ideas about race transform not just a sign's value but the fundamental ontology of a given sign, reflecting the semiotic power of race and racialization.

    “Here, ideas about race transform not just a sign's value (e.g., as a relatively unremarkable piece of clothing or a sartorial practice associated with criminality, as in the case of the hoodie) but the fundamental ontology of a given sign (e.g., as a bag of candy or a gun, a can of iced tea or drug paraphernalia), thus reflecting the semiotic power of race and racialization (Rosa 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rosa 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

25 of 25

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Eyewitness reports said Michael Brown had his hands up in surrender and uttered 'don't shoot' before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.

    “The first of these campaigns was inspired by eyewitness reports that Michael Brown had his hands up in the air as a sign of surrender and had uttered the words don't shoot just before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a long history of state-sanctioned violence against racialized populations in the United States.

    “the long history of state-sanctioned violence against racialized populations”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Augé citation year conflicts with reference list

    Minor

    The text cites Augé's work as published in 2009, but the corresponding reference lists 1995.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. 2009, Citizen Journalism: Global Perspectives
  2. Bonilla , Yarimar Non-Sovereign Futures: French Caribbean Politics in the Wake of Disenchantment Chicago University of Chicago Press
  3. Horst, 2012, Digital Anthropology
  4. 2003, States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection

Cited by

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Related

Authors
BONILLA, Y., & ROSA, J.
Affiliations
  • Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
  • University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
Corresponding author
  • BONILLA, YARIMAR
  • ROSA, JONATHAN
ORCID
Venue
American Ethnologist
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2015-01-15
Volume
42
Issue
1
Pages
4-17
ISSN
0094-0496 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1111/amet.12112
OpenAlex
W2021905382
Cited by
1,116
References
53
Citations by year
2026: 51 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 118 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 116 · 2020: 236 · 2019: 120 · 2018: 106 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 10
FWCI
240.03
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm, 229 d)
Locations
American Ethnologist (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
Keywords
Ferguson protests, hashtag activism, online protest, social media, police brutality, racialized bodies, Michael Brown, racial politics, political temporality, media representation of race, police militarization, social movements

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