Contemporary Social Movements in a Hybrid Media Environment

Caren, Neal; Andrews, Kenneth T.; Lu, Todd

doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054627

Cited by 108Social Media and PoliticsSocial Movements and Cultural IdentityGender, Feminism, and Media

Contemporary Social Movements in a Hybrid Media Environment

Caren, Neal, Andrews, Kenneth T., Lu, Todd·2020·Annual Review of Sociology

DOI 10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054627

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Abstract

Media are central to the dynamics of protest and social movements. Contemporary social movements face a shifting environment composed of new media technologies and platforms that enable new identities, organizational forms, and practices. We review recent research focusing on the ways in which movements shape and are shaped by the media environment and the ways in which changes in the media environment have reshaped participation, mobilization, and impacts of activism. We conclude with the following recommendations for scholarship in this burgeoning area: move toward a broader conception of media in movements; expand engagement with scholarship in neighboring disciplines that study politics, media, and communication; develop new methodological and analytical skills for emerging forms of media; and investigate the ways in which media are enhancing, altering, or undermining the ability of movements to mobilize support, shape broader identities and attitudes, and secure new advantages from targets and authorities.

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Digital and social media offer important new tools for social movements, activists, and state critics as well as substantial avenues for expanding state surveillance and suppression of those same actors.
“Digital and social media offer important new tools for social movements, activists, and state critics (1) as well as substantial avenues for expanding state surveillance and suppression of those same actors (2, 3).”
From Physical and virtual repertoires of contention (2022) · cites this paper as [1]

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“Others, however, increasingly worried about the potential of new media to exacerbate inequalities (Schradie 2019), generate thin forms of “clicktivism” (Shulman 2009), and enhance the capacities for surveillance and repression of movements (King et al. 2013, Tufekci 2017).”
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Pond, P., & Lewis, J. (2017) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2017.1366539 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The Wealth of (Occupation) Networks? Communication Patterns and Information Distribution in a Twitter Protest Network
Theocharis, Y. (2013) · Journal of Information Technology & Politics · doi:10.1080/19331681.2012.701106 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Soundbitten: the perils of media-centered political activism
Sobieraj, S. (2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-2978 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Revenge by photoshop: Memefying police acts in the public dialogue about injustice
Bayerl, P. S., & Stoynov, L. (2014) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444814554747 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
#AskThicke: “Blurred Lines,” Rape Culture, and the Feminist Hashtag Takeover
Horeck, T. (2014) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2014.975450 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Facebook Feminism: Social Media, Blogs, and New Technologies of Contemporary U.S. Feminism*
Crossley, A. D. (2015) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-20-2-253 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
PROBING THE IMPLICATIONS OF FACEBOOK USE FOR THE ORGANIZATIONAL FORM OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT ORGANIZATIONS
Mercea, D. (2013) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2013.770050 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Finding Collective Events
Maney, G. M., & Oliver, P. E. (2001) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124101030002001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
SOLIDARITY OR SCHISM: IDEOLOGICAL CONGRUENCE AND THE TWITTER NETWORKS OF EGYPTIAN ACTIVISTS*
Abul‐Fottouh, D., & Fetner, T. (2018) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-23-1-23 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
THE RISE OF INEQUALITY: HOW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS SHAPE DISCURSIVE FIELDS*
Gaby, S., & Caren, N. (2016) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-21-4-413 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citation
Picture Perfect? The Role of Instagram in Issue Agenda Setting During the 2016 Presidential Primary Campaign
Towner, T. L., & Muñoz, C. L. (2017) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439317728222 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Cascades of Coverage: Dynamics of Media Attention to Social Movement Organizations
Seguin, C. (2015) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sov085 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The Interdependency of Mass Media and Social Movements
Vliegenthart, R., & Walgrave, S. (2012) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446201015.n31 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Technology and Social Media
Earl, J. (2018) · The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Social Movements · doi:10.1002/9781119168577.ch16 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Investigating Participatory Dynamics Through Social Media Using a Multideterminant “Frame” Approach: The Case of Climategate on YouTube
Porter, A. J., & Hellsten, I. (2014) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/jcc4.12065 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Antislavery in America: The Press, the Pulpit, and the Rise of Antislavery Societies
King, M. D., & Haveman, H. A. (2008) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2189/asqu.53.3.492 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
The Impacts of Repression: The Effect of Police Presence and Action on Subsequent Protest Rates
Earl, J., & Soule, S. A. (2010) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x(2010)0000030006 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Media Coverage and Organizational Support in The Dutch Environmental Movement
Vliegenthart, R., Oegema, D., & Klandermans, B. (2005) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.10.3.pw25225470l850xn · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The battle for ‘Trayvon Martin’: Mapping a media controversy online and off-line
Graeff, E., Stempeck, M., & Zuckerman, E. (2014) · First Monday · doi:10.5210/fm.v19i2.4947 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Abortion Politics, Mass Media, and Social Movements in America
Rohlinger, D. A. (2014) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107706583 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Grassroots organizing in the digital age: considering values and technology in Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street
Agarwal, S. D., Barthel, M., Rost, C., Borning, A. H., Bennett, W. L., & Johnson, C. N. (2014) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2013.873068 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Blessing or Curse for Advocacy? How News Media Attention Helps Advocacy Groups to Achieve Their Policy Goals
Bruycker, I. D. (2018) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2018.1493007 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Movements, Aesthetics, and Markets in Literary Change: Making the American Labor Problem Novel
Isaac, L. W. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400605 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
2. Britain Creates the Social Movement
Tilly, C. (1982) · Rutgers University Press eBooks · doi:10.36019/9781978817173-002 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Social media on the picket line
Qiu, J. L. (2016) · Media Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/0163443716643012 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Correcting for Selection Bias in Social Movement Research
Hug, S., & Wisler, D. (1998) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.3.2.6ptv3133154x28n5 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
How social media matter: Repression and the diffusion of the Occupy Wall Street movement
Suh, C. S., Vasi, I. B., & Chang, P. Y. (2017) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.01.004 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The Rules of Engagement: Comparing Two Social Protest Movements on YouTube
Vraga, E. K., Bode, L., Wells, C., Driscoll, K., & Thorson, K. (2013) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0117 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Contestation on Reddit, Gamergate, and movement barriers
Buyukozturk, B., Gaulden, S., & Dowd‐Arrow, B. (2018) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2018.1483227 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Navigating the technology-media-movements complex
Fominaya, C. F., & Gillan, K. (2017) · Technology, Media and Social Movements · doi:10.1080/14742837.2017.1338943 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Start Small, Build Big: Negotiating Opportunities in Media Markets
Ryan, C. M., Anastario, M. P., & Jeffreys, K. (2005) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/maiq.10.1.wx7xq57702764v72 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Open networks and secret Facebook groups: exploring cycle effects on activists’ social media use in the 2010/11 UK student protests
Hensby, A. (2016) · Social movement studies · doi:10.1080/14742837.2016.1201421 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Issue Consistency? Comparing Television Advertising, Tweets, and E-mail in the 2014 Senate Campaigns
Kang, T., Fowler, E. F., Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2017) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2017.1334729 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Crossing Categorical Boundaries: A Study of Diversification by Social Movement Organizations
Wang, D. J., Rao, H., & Soule, S. A. (2019) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122419846111 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
COLLECTIVE IDENTITY IN THE DIGITAL AGE: THIN AND THICK IDENTITIES IN MOVEON.ORG AND THE TEA PARTY MOVEMENT*
Rohlinger, D. A., & Bunnage, L. A. (2018) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-23-2-135 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Taming Big Data
Bail, C. A. (2015) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124115587825 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
YouTube, young people, and the socioeconomic crises in Greece
Triliva, S., Varvantakis, C., & Дафермос, М. (2014) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2014.953564 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Making Space in Social Media: #MuslimWomensDay in Twitter
Pennington, R. (2018) · Journal of Communication Inquiry · doi:10.1177/0196859918768797 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
BRITAIN FIRST AND THE UK INDEPENDENCE PARTY: SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOVEMENT-PARTY DYNAMICS*
Davidson, T., & Berezin, M. (2018) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-23-4-485 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
All the Right Movements? Mediation, Rightist Movements, and Why US Movements Received Extensive Newspaper Coverage
Amenta, E., & Elliott, T. A. (2017) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sox067 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Recipes for Attention: Policy Reforms, Crises, Organizational Characteristics, and the Newspaper Coverage of the LGBT Movement, 1969–2009
Elliott, T. A., Amenta, E., & Caren, N. (2016) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12290 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citation
MAKING GOOD NEWS: WHAT EXPLAINS THE QUALITY OF COVERAGE OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT*
Amenta, E., Elliott, T. A., Shortt, N., Tierney, A. C., Türkoğlu, D., & Vann, B. (2019) · Mobilization: An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-24-1-19 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
What's Going on? Making Sense of the Role of the Media in the Arab Uprisings
Robertson, A. (2015) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12278 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
INTERSECTIONAL GRIEVANCES IN CARE WORK: FRAMING INEQUALITIES OF GENDER, CLASS AND CASTE*
Krishnan, P. (2017) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-22-4-493 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Social Movements and Mass Media in a Global Context
Rohlinger, D. A., & Corrigall‐Brown, C. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781119168577.ch7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Audiences in social context: bridging the divides between political communications and social movements scholarship
Sobieraj, S. (2019) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2019.1568517 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Occupy the government: Analyzing presidential and congressional discursive response to movement repression.
Mausolf, J. G. (2017) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.07.001 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Symposium on political communication and social movements: ships passing in the night
Rohlinger, D. A. (2019) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2019.1568514 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, and Social Movements
Owens, P. B., McVeigh, R., & Cunningham, D. (2018) · The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Social Movements · doi:10.1002/9781119168577.ch31 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mediated nonviolence as a global force:
Scalmer, S. (2013) · Intellect Books · doi:10.2307/j.ctv36xw3km.10 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Tracking Protests Using Geotagged Flickr Photographs
Alanyali, M., Preis, T., & Moat, H. S. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150466 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and the Conservative Media Establishment
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.47-0104 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Untitled work
Earl, J. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl8198 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Voices of a generation the communicative power of youth activism
Eide, E., & Kunelius, R. (2021) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-021-03211-z · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“The general link between the power of such networks and digital communication has been discussed and theorized for more than a decade (e.g., Castells, 2009; see also Caren et al. 2020).”
Background
The distraction effect. Political and entertainment-oriented content on social media, political participation, interest, and knowledge
Matthes, J., Heiss, R., & van Scharrel, H. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107644 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Born for a Storm”: Hard-Right Social Media and Civil Unrest
Karell, D., Linke, A. M., Holland, E. C., & Hendrickson, E. (2023) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224231156190 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“The relationship between social media use and subsequent offline social behavior is ambiguous (Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020; Haidt and Bail 2022; Zhuravskaya, Petrova, and Enikolopov 2020).”
Background
When the Far Right Makes the News: Protest Characteristics and Media Coverage of Far-Right Mobilization in Europe
Gattinara, P. C., & Froio, C. (2023) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140231169029 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…and charismatic leaders in the protest network (Ellinas, 2020), as well as the socio-demographic pro ﬁ le of protesters — that is, their age, status, and gender (Klandermans & Mayer, 2006; Miller-Idriss, 2020), which we could only address indirectly with the data at stake (Caren et al., 2020).”
Background
The social movement was live streamed: a relational analysis of mobile live streaming during the 2019 Hong Kong protests
Fang, K. (2022) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmac033 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Understanding Collective Identity in Virtual Spaces: A Study of the Youth Climate Movement
Nasrin, S., & Fisher, D. R. (2021) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642211056257 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Although there continues to be ongoing discussion about the ways that the diffusion of digital technologies have changed social movements, a general consensus has emerged that digital communications contribute to successful mobilization and collective action, as well as broader information dissemination (see especiall…”
Background
Broadcasting Messages via Telegram: Pro-Government Social Media Control During the 2020 Protests in Belarus and 2022 Anti-War Protests in Russia
Kuznetsova, D. (2023) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2023.2233444 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Anti-Stigma Organizing in the Age of Social Media: How Social Movement Organizations Leverage Affordances to Build Solidarity
Wang, M. S., & Tracey, P. (2023) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2021.0388 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Money and Meaning in the Climate Change Debate: Organizational Power, Cultural Resonance, and the Shaping of American Media Discourse
Wetts, R. (2023) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/726747 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The power of protest in the media: examining portrayals of climate activism in UK news
Scheuch, E. G., Ortiz, M., Shreedhar, G., & Thomas‐Walters, L. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-02688-0 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Progressive or problematic? A comparative analysis of media depictions of demands to defund the police
Craig, M. O., & Reid, J. C. (2022) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-09-2021-0124 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Framing the Black Lives Matter Movement: An Analysis of Shifting News Coverage in 2014 and 2020
Carney, N., & Kelekay, J. (2022) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/23294965221092731 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Mass media coverage allows social movements to gain legitimacy and advance agendas, but mass media can also work to silence social movements by denying activists a broader platform and by undermining activists’ claims (Caren et al. 2020).”
Background
The power of digital activism for transnational advocacy: Leadership, engagement, and affordance
Cheng, E. W., Lui, E., & Fu, K. (2023) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448231155376 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Social movement and communication scholars have recognized the multifaceted array of media technologies, professions, and content with which social movement actors interact (Caren et al., 2020; Mattoni, 2017).”
Framing Social Movements on Social Media
Mendelsohn, J., Vijan, M., Card, D., & Budak, C. (2024) · Journal of Quantitative Description Digital Media · doi:10.51685/jqd.2024.icwsm.9 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
How migrants manifest their transnational identity through online social networks: comparative findings from a case of Koreans in Germany
Park, S., & Gerrits, L. (2021) · Comparative Migration Studies · doi:10.1186/s40878-020-00218-w · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The petition fired up the East Asian migrants in Germany to organise a social movement via different OSN channels, following the manner of the contemporary hybrid movement such as #metoo campaign(4) (Caren et al. 2020).”
Background
Digital sociology: origin, development, and prospects from a global perspective
Zhao, Y., & Wang, M. (2023) · The Journal of Chinese Sociology · doi:10.1186/s40711-023-00198-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“This kind of social movement that mobilizes through social media platforms and widely applies digital technologies in the process is becoming increasingly common in Western countries (Caren et al. 2020).”
Background
From Fake News to Echo-Chambers: On The Limitations of New Media for Environmental Activism in Australia, and “Activist-Responsive Adaptation”
Calibeo, D. L., & Hindmarsh, R. (2022) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2022.2028648 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“For example, regarding electoral use, public opinion, and campaigning including the notable 2010 Arab Spring uprisings, the 2011 Occupy Movement, and more recently, the Black Lives Matter movement starting in 2014 (Caren et al., 2020; Mundt et al., 2018).”
Background
Branding the “wow-academy”: The risks of promotional culture and quasi-corporate communication in higher education
Väliverronen, E., Sihvonen, T., Laaksonen, S.-M., & Koskela, M. (2022) · Studies in Communication Sciences · doi:10.24434/j.scoms.2022.03.3285 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
#StrongTogether? Qualitative Sentiment Analysis of Social Media Reactions to Disaster Volunteering during a Forest Fire in Finland
Raisio, H., Puustinen, A., & Lindell, J. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14073983 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“With regard to the politicization of disaster volunteering, it would also be useful to examine the role of hybrid media in more detail [63,64] and also that of social media influencers [65–67].”
Background
What do Twitter comments tell about news article bias? Assessing the impact of news article bias on its perception on Twitter
Spinde, T., Richter, E., Wessel, M. P., Kulshrestha, J., & Donnay, K. (2023) · Online Social Networks and Media · doi:10.1016/j.osnem.2023.100264 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Media coverage of climate activist groups in Germany
Dablander, F., Wimmer, S., & Haslbeck, J. M. B. (2025) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-025-03959-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…protest (such as violence, disruption, or dramatic confrontations) rather than the underlying social or political issues they aim to address (e.g., Caren et al. 2020; Di Cicco 2010; McLeod and Hertog 1999); see Cooper (2023 ) for a similar finding regarding US television coverage of climate…”
The digital coverage of the yellow vest movement as protest activity
Baisnée, O., Cavé, A., Gousset, C., Nollet, J., & Parent, F. (2022) · French Politics · doi:10.1057/s41253-022-00190-0 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Many social movements of the twentieth century have expressed concern over the slant of media coverage and devoted attention to their public image (Gitlin 1980; McCurdy 2012; Caren et al. 2020).”
Background
Testing Public Reactions to Mass-Protest Hybrid Media Events
Jiménez-Sánchez, M., Fraile, M., & Lobera, J. (2022) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfac033 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Social bots spoil activist sentiment without eroding engagement
Li, L., Vásárhelyi, O., & Vedres, B. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-74032-0 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Black Lives Matter movement mitigates bias against racial minority actors
Lin, Y.-W., Yang, S., Han, W., & Lu, J. G. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2307726121 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In doing so, we heed the call from social movement scholars to examine the power of new media - enabled social movements in instigating social change (37).”
Background
Radicalisation, Exhaustion, and Networked Movement in Abeyance: Hong Kong University Students’ Localist Identification after the Umbrella Movement
Tang, G. K. Y., & Chung, H.-F. (2022) · China Perspectives · doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.13749 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
When feminism meets social networks
Prebor, G. (2021) · Library Hi Tech · doi:10.1108/lht-02-2021-0074 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Dynamics of protest mobilisation in the European poly-crisis
Oana, I., Kriesi, H., & Altiparmakis, A. (2024) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501763.2024.2366388 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“An overview over four important recent movements – Arab spring, Occupy Wall Street, BLM, and far-right movements reveals a variety of ways in which these movements have used social media for their mobilisation (Caren et al ., 2020).”
Betting on Digital Attention: Pornography vs. Climate, Economics, Elections, Immigration, and War (Don’t Take the Field)
Wright, P. J., Gruszczynski, M., & Woodworth, B. (2025) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2025.2459796 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
I Refused to Say #MeToo: Negotiating Between Individual Agency and ‘Imagined’ Platform Constraints
Dixit, S. (2021) · Journal of Creative Communications · doi:10.1177/0973258620980550 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Class and caste-based (very integral to the Indian scenario) exclusion from digital media activism (Bansode, 2020; Schradie, 2018) and counter-activism activities are the other aspects that have also been discussed in the previous literature witnessed during various social media–focused movements such as Arab Spring a…”
Background
The IPCC in the hybrid public sphere: divergent responses to climate mitigation solutions in mainstream and social media
Wetts, R., Painter, J., & Loy, L. (2024) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-024-03827-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…a sense of oppositional identity may be more important to building and mobilizing “dissident counternetworks” than crafting an appealing public message that generates more widespread support (Caren et al. 2020; Davidson and Berezin 2018; Dignam and Rohlinger 2019; Schäfer and North 2019).”
Defusing environmental activism through scientific greening: Government framing strategy and its effects in China
Du, J., Han, R., & Wei-xia, L. (2021) · Environmental Policy and Governance · doi:10.1002/eet.1971 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Selection and Description Bias in Protest Reporting by Government and News Media on Weibo
Zhang, H., Lu, Y., & Bai, R. X. (2023) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741023001042 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Power of Protest in the Media: Examining Portrayals of Climate Activism in UK NewsPreprint
Scheuch, E. G., Ortiz, M., Shreedhar, G., & Thomas‐Walters, L. (2023) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/6jtkn · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Organizing an “organizationless” protest campaign in the WeChatsphere
Cao, H. (2022) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/20539517221078823 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As long as the calculation of costs or free-riding becomes less relevant, SMO-led activism is giving way to more “nimble” and “participatory” forms of digital activism (Caren et al., 2020: 444).”
Background
Does Violent Protest Receive Negative Coverage?—Media Framing of Hong Kong Anti-Extradition Bill Movement and French Yellow Vest Movement
Li, Y., Cassard, M., & Holmes, B. (2023) · International Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1080/00207659.2023.2202992 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…news coverage, unless they are confrontational events involving violence or arrests; however, coverage of these confrontations often draw attention to the event itself and away from the issues and causes of the movement (Amenta et al. 2009; Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020; Smith et al. 2001).”
Background
Hybrid Collective Action
Waisbord, S. (2023) · New perspectives in organizational communication · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-22993-0_4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Digital activism and collective resistance to police brutality: Systematic review of the quieter and less visible narratives of #EndSARS protest
Etim, E., Fatile, J. O., Duke, J. E., Ibikunle, B. Q., & Duru, E. J. C. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101722 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Power to the People
Bello, A. W. K., & Kaufhold, K. (2023) · International Journal of Interactive Communication Systems and Technologies · doi:10.4018/ijicst.320652 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Challenges of #bodypositivity: Social media and hashtag activism
Khonach, T., & Kurz, A. (2024) · Fat Studies · doi:10.1080/21604851.2024.2328405 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Hashtags, words, or brief statements, are useful because they can be used in addition to other hashtags, helping individuals find specific content, and raise awareness of certain issues (Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020; Flesher and Gillan 2017; George and Leidner 2019).”
Background
Beyond the protest paradigm: Four types of news coverage and America's most prominent social movement organizations
Amenta, E., Caren, N., & Yuan, W. (2024) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.13006 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In addition, we examine four news sources, supplementing the often-used New York Times (see reviews in Amenta et al., 2017; Caren et al., 2020; Earl et al., 2004) with the Washington Post , Los Angeles Times , and Wall Street Journal .”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
What Drives the News Coverage of US Social Movements?
Yuan, W., Caren, N., & Amenta, E. (2023) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soad057 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Although most arguments in the social movement literature apply widely across movements, little scholarship compares many movements and organizations over long periods of time or across many news sources (reviews in Earl et al. 2004; Amenta et al. 2017; Caren et al. 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Media Framing of the International Paralympic Committee’s WeThe15 Disability Inclusion Campaign During Tokyo 2020 and Beijing 2022: A Comparative Analysis
Geurin, A. N., Hayday, E. J., & Morgan, S. (2025) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/21674795251313689 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Research has speci ﬁ cally examined the media framing of social movements (Caren et al., 2020; Elliott et al., 2016; Noetzel et al., 2023), resulting in calls for further research to examine how media alter, enhance, or inhibit social movements ’ ability to shape attitudes, mobilize support, and in…”
Influential
#Biguys and #Biboys: The Discursive Production of Bisexual Men through Instagram’s Homonormative Visual Culture
Rogers, B. (2020) · Journal of Bisexuality · doi:10.1080/15299716.2020.1823298 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Online Political Participation
Earl, J., & Kenski, K. M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198861126.013.26 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Feminism on social media: Generalized misogyny
Zhu, X. (2024) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/202419902012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Language has been a tool for mirroring society's values since ancient times, often reproducing patriarchal views [6].”
Method
Social media and political protest mobilization: unveiling the dynamics of the Arab Spring 2.0
Al-Qteishat, A. S. A. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06942-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Today’s social movements encounter a changing landscape that includes new media technologies and platforms, allowing for the emergence of new identities, organizational structures, and behaviors (Caren et al., 2020).”
Assessing the Impact of Digital Alternative News Media in a Hybrid News Environment: Cases from Taiwan and Hong Kong
Nip, J. Y. M., & Cheng, Y. (2022) · Journalism and Media · doi:10.3390/journalmedia3030039 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hard-Right Social Media and Civil UnrestPreprint
Karell, D., Linke, A. M., Holland, E. C., & Hendrickson, E. (2021) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/pna5u · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hybrid stakeholders and processes in social impact organizing: a constitutive approach to hybridity
Fu, J. S., & Cooper, K. R. (2025) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1093/ct/qtaf027 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
‘Greening’ International Law en route to Agenda 2030: The Role of Youth in Enhancing the Soft Power of Climate Justice
Samuel, S. A. (2022) · Yearbook of International Environmental Law · doi:10.1093/yiel/yvad064 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Consumers as regulators of global value chains’ conduct? A consumer-inclusive framework of change
Nachum, L., Manning, S. D., & Sen, S. (2025) · Journal of International Business Policy · doi:10.1057/s42214-025-00211-z · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Our focus on consumers’ agency is based on sociological theories of governmentality (Faubion, 2000; Foucault, 2008) and social movements (Caren et al., 2020; McAdam, 2017).”
Populism and Protest
Hirschmann, N. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2020.619235 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Digital mobilization via attention building: The logic of cross-boundary actions in the 2019 Hong Kong social movement
Fu, K. (2023) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2023.2185717 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“2020), the technology has been found to be remarkably instrumental in the organization of collective actions (Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020) and facilitation of the public’s participation via social network connectivity in decentralized, personalized, and digitally-mediated political actions across…”
Background
Macro-Level Effects of Political Participation
Andrews, K. T., Janko, E., & Vo, A. H.-N. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198861126.013.45 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
Deciphering the Socio-Ecological Determinants of Contemporary Collective Action in China: Insights from 2010–2016 Panel Data Analysis
Ma, Y., & Chen, H. (2024) · Human-Centric Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1007/s44230-024-00079-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“With the fundamental transformation in the ways of accessing information, organizers of collective actions have efficiently utilized social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook to disseminate information, organize activities, and promote their positions [29].”
Strategies of Legitimisation and De-legitimisation in Polarised Representations of Climate Activists in Swedish Media
Nilsson, B. (2025) · Media Watch · doi:10.1177/09760911251316578 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“A tendency in news media is to represent climate activists negatively by focusing on the concrete effects of their protests (the spectacle of the protests), for example, traffic disruptions, and not on their aims (Bergman, 2014; Caren et al., 2020; Di Cicco, 2010).”
From risk to relational distance: Dis/connective identification in the Hong Kong digital diaspora
Chung, H.-F., Kei, N., Liu, J., & Chandra, P. (2026) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2026.2634840 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…platforms, data flows, and technical infrastructures interact within broader power dynamics, enabling new identifications, organizational forms, and every-day uses that bridge online and offline activity (Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020; Chadwick 2013; Toivanen, Nelimarkka, and Valaskivi 2022).”
Social Media and Online Political Activism in Protest Communication Strategies: Friends or Foes?
Casero-Ripollés, A., & Pepe-Oliva, R. (2021) · Smart innovation, systems and technologies · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5792-4_8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
How to Analyze the Influence of Social Movements With QCA: Combinational Hypotheses, Venn Diagrams, and Movements Making Big News
Amenta, E., Caren, N., & Yuan, W. (2023) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20230000047009 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Antirasismer och antirasister. Realistiska utopier, spänningar och vardagserfarenheter
Krifors, K., Sältenberg, H., Mulinari, D., & Neergaard, A. (2024) · doi:10.60156/kriterium.59 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Breaking the culture of silence: An analysis of traditional media versus alternative media coverage of a social tragedy in Guatemala
Ortiz, J. (2024) · The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries · doi:10.1002/isd2.12342 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The information systems (IS) literature has studied ICT's role in facilitating spaces for public discourse in established democratic societies (Caren et al., 2020; Miranda et al., 2016; Selander & Jarvenpaa, 2016; Vaast & Levina, 2015).”
Explaining Differential Involvement in Cross-Movement Coalitions on Social Media: the #StopHateForProfit Campaign
Li, Y., Bernard, J.-G., & Luczak–Roesch, M. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Social Computing · doi:10.1145/3689368 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For instance, while the Internet has transformed how movements operate, the legacy media (television, radio, reporters, and the news media) still matters for setting the agenda and rallying the public to a cause [ 30 , 31 ].”
De-normalizing Obstetric Violence in Italy: Digital Storytelling as Source of Information and Identification
Cersosimo, G., & Landolfi, L. (2024) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012241292261 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In fact, online platforms now play a fundamental role in protest dynamics and social mobilization (Caren et al., 2020).”
Social Movements in the Commercial Public Sphere: How Women’s Magazines Popularized Second-Wave Feminism
Polletta, F., Boka, D., Martínez, C., & Ogaki, M. (2024) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/734377 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mindfulness and green purchase behaviors: test of a serial mediation model
Guidice, R. M., Mesmer‐Magnus, J., Andrews, M. C., & Daniel, C. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Planning and Management · doi:10.1080/09640568.2025.2459633 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Societal norms around sustainability have become increasingly prominent (Caren, Andrews, and Lu 2020) with the production of environmentally friendly products following suit.”
Analyzing the Overturn of Roe v. Wade: A Term Co-Occurrence Network Analysis of YouTube Comments
Bizri-Baryak, R., Ivanitskaya, L. V., Erzikova, E. V., & Kreps, G. L. (2025) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics12020049 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…the overturn of Roe, YouTube is significant not only as a platform widely used by U.S. residents and activists for disseminating information and messages via videos, but also as a critical arena for political education, dissecting reasons for polarization, and incubating cultural conflicts [41].”
Does Democracy Affect Income Distribution? Preliminary Evidence for OECD Countries
Zafirovski, M. Z. (2025) · Politics &amp Policy · doi:10.1111/polp.70029 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
AUDIENCE ENGAGEMENT AND THE DYNAMICS OF ONLINE ACTIVISM: FAR-RIGHT MOBILIZATION ON FACEBOOK*
Davidson, T. (2024) · Mobilization An International Quarterly · doi:10.17813/1086-671x-22-4-445 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
TÜRKİYE’DE SOSYAL MEDYANIN GIDA AKTİVİZMİ AMAÇLI KULLANIMI: GIDADEDEKTİFİ ÖRNEĞİNİN İNCELEMESİ
Erkmen, Ö., & CAN, B. S. (2022) · Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yeni Düşünceler Hakemli E-Dergisi · doi:10.56118/euifydhed.1113269 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Impact of Social Movement on Racial Diversification Initiatives: Evidence From the Movie Industry
Lin, Y.-W., Yang, S., & Han, W. (2023) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2023.258 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Analisis Keterlibatan Warga Digital melalui Media Sosial dalam Gerakan #ReformasiDikorupsi di Indonesia
Ramadhani, O. A., Azzahra, A. J., Siregar, A. A., & Ummah, A. (2024) · Jurnal ISO Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Politik dan Humaniora · doi:10.53697/iso.v4i2.2058 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Political participation on social media: conceptual and empirical state of the art and research agenda
Waeterloos, C. (2025) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1093/anncom/wlae002 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Producing the “We” in High-Risk Online Activism: Identity Configurations in My Stealthy Freedom
Ostovar, M., & Schultze, U. (2025) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2025/17121 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
From civil society to populism. Mapping a typology of political activism in Europe
Mikecz, D. (2026) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-026-09689-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Changes in the hybrid media environment have altered how entities of political activism, such as social movements, accumulate resources, nurture collective identities, and realize action (Caren et al., 2020 ).”
New organizational forms: Deconstructing and reconfiguring the literature
Bremer, C. (2026) · European Management Review · doi:10.1111/emre.70060 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Coalitions Under Threat: Analyzing the 2019 Hong Kong Anti-Extradition Protests Using Telegram Social Media Data
Yuan, W. (2023) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20230000047011 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Contribution of Religion to Protest Mobilization on Digital Social Networks
Hadi, K. A., Bendahan, M., & Chemaou, S. (2024) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel15091035 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Media and Social Movements
Rohlinger, D. A. (2022) · The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements · doi:10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm128.pub2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Digital Activism and Collective Resistance to Police Brutality: Systematic Review of the Quieter and Less Visible Narratives of #EndSARS ProtestPreprint
Etim, E., Fatile, J. O., Ibikunle, B. Q., Duke, J. E., & Duru, E. J. C. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5191623 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS ORGANIZED BUILT ON SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS IN BRAZIL: A STUDY OF HOW TRADITIONAL MEDIA EMBRACED THESE NOVEL FORMS OF CONNECTION AND COMMUNITY
de‐Lima‐Santos, M., & Ceron, W. (2021) · AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research · doi:10.5210/spir.v2021i0.12162
De los movimientos sociales a las ecologías de acción política
Correa, G., Bidart, J. C., Grau, L., Gerber, M., & Luzardo, A. (2022) · Iztapalapa(en línea)/Iztapalapa · doi:10.28928/ri/942023/atc3/correamorerirag/chavez
Justicia social, datos, justicia de datos: breves notas en conversación con Emiliano Treré y Guiomar Rovira
Roig, A. (2023) · COMeIN · doi:10.7238/c.n130.2322
Newsmakers and news sources in the “hybrid media system” (the case of the full-scale Russian invasion coverage)
Стеблина, Н. О. (2023) · Current Issues of Mass Communication · doi:10.17721/cimc.2023.33.34-43
Activist Journalists and Postsocialist Politics Through the Lens of the Armenian Velvet Revolution
Korhonen, J., & Rodina, E. (2023) · Europe Asia Studies · doi:10.1080/09668136.2023.2228520
“This analysis also coincides with the suggestion made by Caren et al .”
Result
Estratégias transmídia e juventudes pelo clima: reflexos do movimento Fridays for Future no Brasil
Ribeiro, A. C. D. (2023) · doi:10.11606/d.27.2023.tde-01112023-155005
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Durban, E. C. (2024) · INDEX COMUNICACIÓN · doi:10.62008/ixc/14/01munici
Impression Management, “Optics” Maintenance, and Dramaturgical Loyalty Within White Supremacist Organizations
Drago, A. G. (2024) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20240000048003
From Antagonism to Fusion: Military and Industrial Society Fused in Militarist Capitalism
Zafirovski, M. Z. (2024) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2024.2366278
How strong is the democratic defence of ‘defence spending?’ Consequence of military expenditure for democracy in OECD countries
Zafirovski, M. Z. (2024) · International Social Science Journal · doi:10.1111/issj.12530
Déjà vu all over again? A model and indexes of proto-fascism for Western and comparable societies
Zafirovski, M. Z. (2025) · Comparative European Politics · doi:10.1057/s41295-025-00408-9
The Democratic Decay Within
Kreiss, D., & Sugarman, A. (2025) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197794937.003.0004
Hybrid activism
Sackl-Sharif, S. (2025) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003527169-9
Economic inequality and political democracy reconsidered: trends, links and effects in 36 OECD countries, 2006–2017
Zafirovski, M. Z. (2025) · International Review of Sociology · doi:10.1080/03906701.2025.2550941
Look at ME, what do WE see? Drivers of online ESG sentiment
Costanza, F., Minà, A., Paternostro, S., & Torri, M. (2025) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-03-2024-0676
Responding to Social Disapproval in the Digital Panarchy: Evidence From Black Lives Matter Activists and Targeted OrganizationsPreprint
Tinguely, P. N., Shrestha, Y. R., & von Krogh, G. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5437278
Labor Disputes in Gig Economy: Evidence from the Online Delivery Platform in ChinaPreprint
Yuan, Y., Xiao, Y., Zhang, J., & Kong, D. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5761647
Track 0: Building a Parallel Ecosystem of Peace A Civic Operating System for Intractable ConflictPreprint
Cohen, J. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6023275
Organizing privacy: cultural and structural constraints on activist use of privacy enhancing technologies
Kretschmer, K., LeClerc, A., & Borradaile, G. (2026) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2026.2616766
“…of attention to activists’ social media use, specifically on the ways activists use Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and WhatsApp (Agarwal et al., 2014; Caren et al., 2020; Fominaya & Gillan, 2019; Hutchinson, 2019; Özkula et al., 2020; Rohlinger & Klein, 2014; Sanfilippo & Strandburg, 2019; Strand &…”

Authors: Caren, N., Andrews, K. T., & Lu, T.
Affiliations: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
Corresponding author: Caren, Neal
ORCID: Caren, Neal
Andrews, Kenneth T.
Lu, Todd
Venue: Annual Review of Sociology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2020-07-30
Volume: 46
Issue: 1
Pages: 443-465
ISSN: 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
1545-2115
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054627
OpenAlex: W3021577149
Cited by: 108
References: 159
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 1
FWCI: 4.55
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Movements and Cultural Identity
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
Keywords: social movements, protest, new media, hybrid media environment, digital activism, mobilization, social movement participation, movement identity, online organizing, political communication

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Contemporary Social Movements in a Hybrid Media Environment

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