Artificial intelligence, 21st century competences, and socio‐emotional learning in education: More than high‐risk?
Abstract
Abstract Over the last two decades, 21st century competences and socio‐emotional skills have become a major focus in educational policy. In this article, skills for the 21st century, soft skills, as well as social and emotional skills, are contextualised in the context of technological change, machine learning, and the ethics of artificial intelligence. The use of data‐driven AI technologies to model and measure these skills—in this article defined as non‐epistemic competence components—can lead to major social challenges that have important implications for educational policies and practices. A moratorium on the use of data on these competence components in machine learning systems is proposed until the society‐wide impact is better understood.
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Education has typically focused on the gradual development of domain-specific theoretical conceptual structures.
“Education, in contrast, has typically focused on the gradual development of domainspecific theoretical conceptual structures (e.g., Davydov, 1982;Tuomi, 2022).”
From State of the art and practice in <scp>AI</scp> in education (2022) · cites this paper as Tuomi, 2022
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Nurhasanah, A., Nadiroh, N., & Maksum, A. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101786 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
AI for Humans and Humans for AI: Towards Cultures of Participation in the Digital Age
Pagano, A., Mørch, A. I., Barletta, V. S., & Andersen, R. (2023) · Interaction design & architecture(s)/ID&A Interaction design & architecture(s) · doi:10.55612/s-5002-059-001psi · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Innovative tools for the direct assessment of social and emotional skills
Linzarini, A., & Silva, D. C. D. (2024) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/eed9bb04-en · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Feng, X., Guan, W., & Xu, E. (2025) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2025.2511661 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Data-driven Educational Practices: On Access, Transparency, and the Value-creation of Data
Dahlberg, G. M. (2024) · Postdigital science and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58622-4_4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Gökçe, H., & Nacaroğlu, O. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13853-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Virvou, M. K., Tsihrintzis, G. A., Chrysafiadi, K., Sakkopoulos, E., & Tsichrintzi, E.-A. (2025) · International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems & Applications (IISA) · doi:10.1109/iisa66859.2025.11311207 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cantero, C. L., Manuel, F., & Pérez, J. M. (2024) · Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental · doi:10.24857/rgsa.v18n6-136 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…the development of skills and the personalization of activities, mediated by the use of digital content (Ocaña-Fernández et al. 2019), in turn, AI is still in arrears on the use of data and machine learning systems, the above, until the impact is better understood throughout society (Tuomi 2022).”
BackgroundCreencias de docentes de secundaria sobre la educación del aprendizaje social y emocional
Martínez-Saura, H.-F., Sánchez-López, M. C., Cejudo, J., & Pérez-González, J. C. (2024) · PUBLICACIONES · doi:10.30827/publicaciones.v54i1.27136 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Como es el caso de las promovidas por la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico (OCDE), a nivel internacional (Tuomi, 2022), o el de la Ley Orgánica 3/2020, de 29 de diciembre, por la que se modifica la Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación (LOMLOE) a nivel español.”
BackgroundArtificial intelligence in aviation English testing
Demirdöken, G. (2024) · The Literacy Trek · doi:10.47216/literacytrek.1556603 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Emotional artificial intelligence in higher education: A systematic review
Sedighi, M., & Sritharakumar, S. (2026) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2026.101080 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Staging of AI: Exploring Perspectives About Generative AI, Creativity and Education
Creely, E., Henriksen, D., Henderson, M., & Mishra, P. (2025) · Journal of Interactive Media in Education · doi:10.5334/jime.995 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Humanity Amplified: The Fusion of Deep Learning and Human Insight to Shape the Future of InnovationPreprint
Bauschard, S., & Quidwai, S. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4621210 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence and Students Happiness
Aboudahr, S. M. F. M., Al-Showaikh, F., & Nalliah, M. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-7332-3.ch021 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Costes-Onishi, P., Kadir, M. S., & Vignesh, V. (2025) · Arts Education Policy Review · doi:10.1080/10632913.2025.2562387 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Villanueva, M. S. V., & Lozano-González, J. M. (2025) · Supervisión 21: revista de educación e inspección · doi:10.52149/sp21/78.6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kuncoro, K. S., Fitriasari, P., Erlangga, S. Y., Ario, M., & Kartika, D. L. (2026) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.176098.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ho, C. S. M., & MacGregor, S. (2026) · Journal of Professional Capital and Community · doi:10.1108/jpcc-10-2025-0119 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
CATME ‐B in Secondary Education: Exploring the Perceptions of Students and Teachers
Vanhove, A., Opdecam, E., Mestdagh, S., & Haerens, L. L. (2024) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12751 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zheng, X., & Chen, Y. (2024) · Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Sciences · doi:10.2478/amns-2024-2920 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Alshahrani, B. T., Karimi, F., & Pileggi, S. F. (2026) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-026-01458-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Artificial Emotional IntelligencePreprint
Chen, A., & Ciriello, R. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5353196 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Empathizing with Students with Disabilities (SWDs): A Design Thinking Perspective
Adarkwah, M. A., & Amponsah, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-0076-9_9
Panga, N. K. R., Bobba, J., Ayyadurai, R., Parthasarathy, K., Bolla, R. L., & Muthusamy, K. (2025) · International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management · doi:10.1142/s0219877025400024
Implementation of Lecturer Competency Development in Higher Education
Satriyadi, S., Siahaan, A., & Santoso, D. R. (2025) · Journal Evaluation in Education (JEE) · doi:10.37251/jee.v6i4.2067
“The quality of education is widely recognized as being profoundly influenced by the competence and professionalism of its lecturers [1]-[4].”
The Engineer of the Future in the Light of Contemporary Professional and Personal Transformations
Simeonova-Ingilizova, M. D. (2025) · International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Agricultural Engineering (EE&AE) · doi:10.1109/eeae65901.2025.11273487
“Viewed as a humane mediator between technology and people, the engineer of the future must possess both solid professional expertise and personal maturity – Including emotional intelligence, social sensitivity, and pedagogical competence [2, 3, 4].”
THE SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY
Agamehdi, B. K. (2025) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science · doi:10.31435/ijitss.4(48).2025.4269
An Exploratory Qualitative Thematic Analysis of Workforce Transformation and Human–Machine Synergy
Haldar, P., & Mandal, D. K. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7153-5.ch001
Asriyyah, K., Rochmaniyah, E. P., Kusuma, S. D., Haq, M. A., Nashrullah, N., Amrulloh, F. S., & Aziz, I. N. (2024) · Journal of Education and Religious Studies (JERS) · doi:10.57060/jers-b3f1qg54
“The advent of digital platforms has initiated avenues for authentic student expression and identity formation, fundamentally altering the pedagogical environment within these educational institutions (Tuomi, 2022).”
Mapping Data-Driven Educational Policy
Azevedo, G., & Pinheiro, M. M. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Advances in Data-Driven Analytics and Intelligent Systems (ADACIS) · doi:10.1109/adacis65663.2025.11437160
“Ethical challenges, including algorithmic bias, privacy violations, and manipulation risks, are recurrent concerns [10], [5], [7], [8], [9].”
InfluentialBahri, A. E., Razıne, R., Hilali, S. E., Messaoud, S., Tachfouti, N., Mechita, N. B., & Obtel, M. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9538324/v1
Exploring Factors Contributing to Student Sociability in Canada: A Machine Learning Approach
Abroampah, D., & Bulut, O. (2026) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/08295735261447107
“Our study seeks to address these gaps by examining the relationship between social-emotional skills and sociability outcomes through machine learning a data-driven technique that provides a theoretical contribution to the foundation of social-emotional skills and sociability (Tuomi, 2022).”
SLPT: An Open Specification and JSON Schema for Learning Provenance in AI-Mediated EducationPreprint
Undheim, T. A., Malik, Q., & Hashmi, N. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6905761
Ireta-Sánchez, J. M., & Berkatsashvili, M. (2026) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems14091120
Comparative Analysis of Machine and Deep Learning Methods for Cuneiform Text Classification
Khalid, N. W., Rashid, S. H., Abd, N. S., Abbas, A. F., Habeeb, M. A., & Khaleel, Y. L. (2026) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-25620-1_31
bashaija, A., Aja, L., Otitoju, A. M., Bwema, K., & Aja, P. M. (2026) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.190304.1
Does artificial intelligence improve social stability risk performance in China?
Zhang, J., Zhang, R., & Yin, C. (2026) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2026.108766
Undheim, T. A., Malik, M. Q., & Hashmi, N. (2026) · SoftwareX · doi:10.1016/j.softx.2026.103125
Artificial Emotional Intelligence
Chen, A., & Ciriello, R. (2026) · Business & Information Systems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s12599-026-01026-9
- Authors
- Tuomi, I.
- Affiliations
- Meaning Processing (Finland) (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Tuomi, Ilkka
- ORCID
- Tuomi, Ilkka
- Venue
- European Journal of Education
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-10-07
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 601-619
- ISSN
- 0141-8211 (ISSN-L)
- 1465-3435
- OpenAlex
- W4303414914
- Cited by
- 66
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 1 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 14.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- European Journal of Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital Education and Society
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in education, 21st century competences, social-emotional learning, soft skills, socioemotional skills, machine learning, AI ethics, data-driven evaluation, education policy, technological change
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