Introduced annual grass increases regional fire activity across the arid western USA(1980–2009)
Abstract
Non-native, invasive grasses have been linked to altered grass-fire cycles worldwide. Although a few studies have quantified resulting changes in fire activity at local scales, and many have speculated about larger scales, regional alterations to fire regimes remain poorly documented. We assessed the influence of large-scale Bromus tectorum (hereafter cheatgrass) invasion on fire size, duration, spread rate, and interannual variability in comparison to other prominent land cover classes across the Great Basin, USA. We compared regional land cover maps to burned area measured using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) for 2000-2009 and to fire extents recorded by the USGS registry of fires from 1980 to 2009. Cheatgrass dominates at least 6% of the central Great Basin (650 000 km(2) ). MODIS records show that 13% of these cheatgrass-dominated lands burned, resulting in a fire return interval of 78 years for any given location within cheatgrass. This proportion was more than double the amount burned across all other vegetation types (range: 0.5-6% burned). During the 1990s, this difference was even more extreme, with cheatgrass burning nearly four times more frequently than any native vegetation type (16% of cheatgrass burned compared to 1-5% of native vegetation). Cheatgrass was also disproportionately represented in the largest fires, comprising 24% of the land area of the 50 largest fires recorded by MODIS during the 2000s. Furthermore, multi-date fires t…
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Invasive plant species have the potential to alter fire regimes when they modify the flammability of an ecosystem.
“For example, invasive plant species have the potential to alter fire regimes when they modify the flammability of an ecosystem (Balch, Bradley, D'Antonio, & Gomez-Dans, 2013;Paritsis et al., 2018).”
From Fire as a fundamental ecological process: Research advances and frontiers (2020) · cites this paper as Balch, Bradley, D'Antonio, & Gomez-Dans, 2013
On continental to global scales, humans expand the fire season, facilitating burning during cooler and wetter conditions outside the historical wildfire season.
“On continental to global scales, humans expand the fire season, facilitating burning during cooler and wetter conditions outside the historical wildfire season (Balch et al., 2013;Le Page et al., 2017).”
From Fire as a fundamental ecological process: Research advances and frontiers (2020) · cites this paper as Balch et al., 2013
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“Finally, we would omit truly unburned islands or misrepresent fire perimeters whenever a coarser, more generalized version of a fire perimeter is larger than that of a smaller version of the same fire (e.g., figure 2 in Balch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Ecology of Disturbance Interactions
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“Wildfire frequency and size have increased significantly in the majority of this ecoregion since the 1980s (11) due, in large part, to synergistic interactions with invading cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), an annual grass native to Eurasia (9, 12).”
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“Invasive plants are known to change key habitat resources for animals associated with disturbance, e.g. by reducing soil disturbance and altering fire frequency (Mack & D’Antonio, 1998; Balch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundEmerging seed enhancement technologies for overcoming barriers to restoration
Madsen, M. D., Davies, K. W., Boyd, C. S., et al. (2016) · Restoration Ecology · doi:10.1111/rec.12332 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“For example, the exotic annual grass cheatgrass has significantly increased fire frequency and is disproportionately represented in the largest wildfires in the Western United States (Balch et al. 2013).”
BackgroundClimate change, fire management, and ecological services in the southwestern US
Hurteau, M. D., Bradford, J. B., Fulé, P. Z., Taylor, A. H., & Martin, K. L. (2013) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.08.007 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“In addition, land use practices and biological invasions (both intentional and unintentional) are impacting ecosystems over very large areas (Stevens and Falk, 2009; Bradley, 2010; Balch et al., 2013), potentially providing a catalyst for widespread and rapid changes in plant distributions.”
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The spatially varying influence of humans on fire probability in North America
Parisien, M.-A., Miller, C., Parks, S. A., DeLancey, E. R., Robinne, F.-N., & Flannigan, M. D. (2016) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/7/075005 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“For instance, the invasion of exotic cheatgrass species (Bromus spp.) have profoundly modified fire regimes in parts of the western US (Balch et al 2013, Parks et al 2015), but are not fully captured by our three indexes.”
BackgroundThe role of large wild animals in climate change mitigation and adaptation
Malhi, Y. S., Lander, T. A., le Roux, E., Stevens, N., Macias‐Fauria, M., Wedding, L. M., Girardin, C. A. J., Kristensen, J. A., Sandom, C. J., Evans, T., et al. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.041 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Wildland fire deficit and surplus in the western United States, 1984–2012
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“…increases in fire activity have also been documented in certain ecosystems or localized areas due to factors such as invasive species that facilitate fire ignition and spread as well as high rates of human-caused ignitions (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, Syphard et al. 2007, Balch et al. 2013).”
BackgroundClimate‐change adaptation on rangelands: linking regional exposure with diverse adaptive capacity
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“In the Mojave Desert and Great Basin over the past 20 years, increased fire frequency has converted some desert shrublands and shrub steppe communities to annual grasslands (CCSP 2008; Balch et al. 2013).”
BackgroundChambers, J. C., Maestas, J. D., Pyke, D. A., et al. (2016) · Rangeland Ecology & Management · doi:10.1016/j.rama.2016.08.005 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Cheatgrass and other invasive annuals now dominate at least 6% of the 650,000 km2 central Great Basin (Balch et al., 2013) and have potential to spread across many of the remaining low to mid elevation sagebrush ecosystems in the sagebrush biome (Bradley et al., 2016).”
BackgroundSeventy-Five Years of Vegetation Treatments on Public Rangelands in the Great Basin of North America
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Rising wildfire risk to houses in the United States, especially in grasslands and shrublands
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Invasive grasses: A new perfect storm for forested ecosystems?
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Ecosystem Impacts of Exotic Annual Invaders in the Genus Bromus
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“Balch et al. ( 2013 ) also found that 65 % of fi res from 2000 to 2009 started on B. tectorum- dominated sites, and a substantial fraction of these spread onto sites that were not dominated by B. tectorum .”
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Controls on interannual variability in lightning-caused fire activity in the western US
Abatzoglou, J. T., Kolden, C. A., Balch, J. K., & Bradley, B. A. (2016) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/045005 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
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“In particular, invasive grasses present a risk to species by increasing fire intensity and its extent and frequency (Setterfield et al. 2010; Litt and Steidl 2011; Balch et al. 2013).”
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The elevational ascent and spread of exotic annual grass dominance in the Great Basin, USA
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Wildfire response to changing daily temperature extremes in California’s Sierra Nevada
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The fastest-growing and most destructive fires in the US (2001 to 2020)
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Aboveground total and green biomass of dryland shrub derived from terrestrial laser scanning
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Quantifying the human influence on fire ignition across the western <scp>USA</scp>
Fusco, E. J., Abatzoglou, J. T., Balch, J. K., Finn, J. T., & Bradley, B. A. (2016) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1002/eap.1395 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationUnfamiliar Territory: Emerging Themes for Ecological Drought Research and Management
Crausbay, S. D., Betancourt, J. L., Bradford, J. B., Cartwright, J., Dennison, W. C., Dunham, J. B., Enquist, C. A. F., Frazier, A. G., Hall, K. R., Littell, J. S., et al. (2020) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.08.019 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“…systems to vegetation type conversion through, for example, a drought-induced invasion of cheatgrass in the western United States, which persists as it promotes an increased fire cycle, 143 or through the strong negative role of herbivory by non-native animals that disrupts recovery processes.”
Alba, C., Skálová, H., McGregor, K. F., D’Antonio, C. M., & Pyšek, P. (2014) · Journal of Vegetation Science · doi:10.1111/jvs.12212 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman-related ignitions concurrent with high winds promote large wildfires across the USA
Abatzoglou, J. T., Balch, J. K., Bradley, B. A., & Kolden, C. A. (2018) · International Journal of Wildland Fire · doi:10.1071/wf17149 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“For example, large fires may be more probable with weaker winds following wet years that promote fine fuel accumulation in fuel-limited fire regimes (Balch et al. 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRepeated fires reduce plant diversity in low‐elevation Wyoming big sagebrush ecosystems (1984–2014)
Mahood, A. L., & Balch, J. K. (2019) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.2591 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, Z., & Wimberly, M. C. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.093 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
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“In large parts of the Great Basin, encroachment of pinyon-juniper has been identified as a primary threat to sage-grousepopulations (CFR, 2015a)by contributing to fragmentationof continuousexpansesof sagebrushandaccelerating apositive feedback between wildfire and invasive annual grass (the other primary threat in the…”
BackgroundChen, Y., Hantson, S., Andela, N., Coffield, S., Graff, C. A., Morton, D. C., Ott, L. E., Foufoula‐Georgiou, E., Smyth, P., Goulden, M. L., et al. (2022) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-022-01343-0 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
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Vegetation type conversion in the US Southwest: frontline observations and management responses
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Living with exotic annual grasses in the sagebrush ecosystem
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“increased the area burned annually in the Great Basin and likely contributed to mega-fires becoming more prevalent in the last decade and a half (Balch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundGlobal fire history of grassland biomes
Leys, B. A., Marlon, J. R., Umbanhowar, C. E., & Vannière, B. (2018) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.4394 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Operationalizing Resilience and Resistance Concepts to Address Invasive Grass-Fire Cycles
Chambers, J. C., Brooks, M. L., Germino, M. J., Maestas, J. D., David I. Board, Jones, M., & Allred, B. (2019) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00185 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Bromus Response to Climate and Projected Changes with Climate Change
Bradley, B. A., Curtis, C. A., & Chambers, J. C. (2016) · Springer series on environmental management · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24930-8_9 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“tectorum-invaded ecosystems were larger and more frequent, with fire return intervals averaging between 50 and 80 years regionally (Balch et al. 2013) and even more frequently in highly invaded landscapes (Whisenant 1990).”
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Forbs, grasses, and grassland fire behaviour
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Switching on the Big Burn of 2017
Balch, J. K., Schoennagel, T., Williams, A. P., Abatzoglou, J. T., Cattau, M. E., Mietkiewicz, N. P., & St. Denis, L. A. (2018) · Fire · doi:10.3390/fire1010017 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Although it may appear counterintuitive that fires followed a wet winter and spring, cold-season precipitation promotes the growth of fine fuels that can burn during the succeeding warmer months, particularly in shrublands invaded with exotic grasses [8].”
BackgroundSelf-citationWeather-Centric Rangeland Revegetation Planning
Hardegree, S. P., Abatzoglou, J. T., Brunson, M. W., Germino, M. J., Hegewisch, K. C., Moffet, C. A., Pilliod, D. S., Roundy, B. A., Boehm, A. R., & Meredith, G. R. (2017) · Rangeland Ecology & Management · doi:10.1016/j.rama.2017.07.003 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“to postfire wind erosion that reinforce site dominance and prevent reestablishment of desirable perennial species (Norton et al., 2004; Bradley et al., 2006; Boxell and Drohan, 2009; Rau et al., 2011; Balch et al., 2013; Blank et al., 2013; Gasch et al., 2013; Owen et al., 2013; Germino et al., 2016).”
BackgroundCheatgrass is favored by warming but not CO2 enrichment in a semi‐arid grassland
Blumenthal, D. M., Kray, J. A., Ortmans, W., Ziska, L. H., & Pendall, E. G. (2016) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.13278 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Winter grazing can reduce wildfire size, intensity and behaviour in a shrub-grassland
Davies, K. W., Boyd, C. S., Bates, J. D., & Hulet, A. (2015) · International Journal of Wildland Fire · doi:10.1071/wf15055 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Exotic annual grass invasion can result in frequent fires (Balch et al. 2013) because of increased dry fine fuels during the wildfire season (Davies and Nafus 2013).”
BackgroundPinus contorta invasions increase wildfire fuel loads and may create a positive feedback with fire
Taylor, K., Maxwell, B. D., McWethy, D. B., Pauchard, A., Nuñez, M. A., & Whitlock, C. L. (2016) · Ecology · doi:10.1002/ecy.1673 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
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Parks, S. A., Guiterman, C. H., Margolis, E. Q., Lonergan, M., Whitman, E., Abatzoglou, J. T., Falk, D. A., Johnston, J. D., Daniels, L. D., Lafon, C. W., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-56333-8 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
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“Cheatgrass’s dominance of areas is linked to disturbances like overgrazing and fire (Young et al., 1987; Whisenant, 1990; Ponzetti et al., 2007; Balch et al., 2013), a lack of competition (Chambers et al.”
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“and wildfires are burning for the first time in recorded history (Haubensak et al. 2009; Balch et al. 2013).”
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“In addition, the projections for modest increases in soil moisture in big sagebrush ecosystems by no means indicates that those systems are not imperiled by global change; interactions among wildfire and invasive annual grasses are major contributors driving historical big sagebrush decline (West, 2000; Knick et al.,…”
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Wildfire exposure and fuel management on western US national forests
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“In the Great Basin and central Arizona, invasive species such as cheatgrass have increased fi ne fuel loadings and contributed to increased rates of burning (Balch et al., 2013; Whisenant,1990).”
BackgroundLong‐term trends in restoration and associated land treatments in the southwestern United States
Copeland, S. M., Munson, S. M., Pilliod, D. S., Welty, J. L., Bradford, J. B., & Butterfield, B. J. (2017) · Restoration Ecology · doi:10.1111/rec.12574 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“It is possible that these changes were triggered by loss of wildlife habitat (e.g. Esque et al. 2003), increasing invasion by nonnative species and associated wildfire (e.g. Balch et al. 2013), and changes in plant species composition (e.g. Munson et al. 2011b).”
BackgroundTrends and Variability of Global Fire Emissions Due To Historical Anthropogenic Activities
Ward, D. S., Shevliakova, E., Malyshev, S. L., & Rabin, S. S. (2018) · Global Biogeochemical Cycles · doi:10.1002/2017gb005787 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Fire activity is also affected by both changes in the distribution of plant species in an ecosystem, such as the introduction of nonnative grasses in the western United States (Balch et al., 2013), and regional trends in lightning strikes (Krause et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialSoil erosion from urbanization processes in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona, USA
Jeong, A., & Dorn, R. I. (2018) · Land Degradation and Development · doi:10.1002/ldr.3207 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Sagebrush steppe recovery after fire varies by development phase of Juniperus occidentalis woodland
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“However, recent calculations by Balch et al. (2013) indicate that fire return intervals for many cheatgrass areas may range between 49 and 78 years.”
BackgroundO’Neil, S. T., Coates, P. S., Brussee, B. E., Ricca, M. A., Espinosa, S. P., Gardner, S. C., & Delehanty, D. J. (2020) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15300 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The climate space of fire regimes in north‐western North America
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“In the case of sagebrush steppe ecosystems this is expected to facilitate colonization by invasive grasses, dramatically altering the ecosystem (Baker, 2006; Balch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundConservation of the world’s mammals: status, protected areas, community efforts, and hunting
Bowyer, R. T., Boyce, M. S., Goheen, J. R., & Rachlow, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Mammalogy · doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyy180 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
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“Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) invasion is the primary cause of increased fire frequency and annual area burnt on sagebrush rangelands throughout the western US (Keane et al. 2008; Miller et al. 2011a; Balch et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialPhenology-based classification of invasive annual grasses to the species level
Weisberg, P. J., Dilts, T. E., Greenberg, J. A., Johnson, K. N., Pai, H., Sladek, C., Kratt, C. B., Tyler, S. W., & Ready, A. (2021) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2021.112568 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
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Seasonal changes in the human alteration of fire regimes beyond the climate forcing
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A Potential New Herbicide for Invasive Annual Grass Control on Rangeland
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“The fire return interval is four to six times shorter for downy brome−invaded sites (50−78 years) comparedwith native sites (~294 years) (Knapp, 1996; Balch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundClimatic and Landscape Influences on Fire Regimes from 1984 to 2010 in the Western United States
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“A remote sensing-based analysis found that change in vegetation and fuels due to cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) invasion in recent decades has increased both fire frequency and size and has therefore substantially altered the regional fire regime across the Great Basin of the western US [71].”
BackgroundEcosystem Water Availability in Juniper versus Sagebrush Snow-Dominated Rangelands
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“) into the US Great Basin, show that invaded areas burn nearly four times more frequently than native vegetation types due to the higher flammability and faster recovery of cheatgrass compared to native species [8].”
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Biological invasions and climate change amplify each other’s effects on dryland degradation
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“…Stennis, Grant/ Award Number: ARZT- 1390130- M12- 222 K E Y W O R D S biological invasion, climate change, desertification, drought, global change, invasive grasses and large- scale tree mortality (Allen et al., 2015; Archer et al., 1995; Balch et al., 2013; Ravi, D’Odorico, Wang, et al., 2009).”
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Drivers of chaparral type conversion to herbaceous vegetation in coastal Southern California
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- Authors
- Balch, J. K., Bradley, B. A., D'Antonio, C. M., & Gómez‐Dans, J.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Environmental Studies Program & Department of Ecology University of California‐Santa Barbara, Evolution and Marine Biology Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
- Department of Geography National Centre for Earth Observation and University College London Gower Street London WC1E 6BT UK
- Corresponding author
- Balch, Jennifer K.
- Venue
- Global Change Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 173-183
- ISSN
- 1354-1013 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2486
- OpenAlex
- W2134315730
- Semantic Scholar
- 460000f67eca2fdf121d8acaab0dfe68def00672
- Cited by
- 682
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 57 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 15
- FWCI
- 21.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Global Change Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Geological Survey
- National Center For Environmental Assessment
- Natural Environment Research Council (earth010003)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Fire effects on ecosystems
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Keywords
- cheatgrass, invasive annual grasses, fire regime change, fire activity, burned area, fire return interval, Great Basin, land cover, fire spread rate, interannual variability, native vegetation
- MeSH terms
- Fires, Poaceae, United States
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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