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Rejection Sensitivity and the Defensive Motivational System: Insights From the Startle Response to Rejection Cues
Abstract
Rejection sensitivity (RS) is the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection. This study used the startle probe paradigm to test whether the affect-based defensive motivational system is automatically activated by rejection cues in people who are high in RS. Stimuli were representational paintings depicting rejection (by Hopper) and acceptance (by Renoir), as well as nonrepresentational paintings of either negative or positive valence (by Rothko and Miro, respectively). Eyeblink startle magnitude was potentiated in people high in RS when they viewed rejection themes, compared with when they viewed nonrepresentational negative themes. Startle magnitude was not attenuated during viewing of acceptance themes in comparison with nonrepresentational positive themes. Overall, the results provide evidence that for people high in RS, rejection cues automatically activate the defensive motivational system, but acceptance cues do not automatically activate the appetitive motivational system.
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“Rejection sensitivity can also be explained as a state of a defensive motivational system (Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & Shoda, 2004;Romero-Canyas et al., 2010).”
From Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review (2017) · cites this paper as Downey et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Compared to individuals with low rejection sensitivity, individuals with high rejection sensitivity show heightened physiological activity (Downey et al., 2004)”
From Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review (2017) · cites this paper as Downey et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“When rejection is the threat, activation of the rejection sensitivity system prepares individuals to detect signs of social threat, and to be ready for immediate action in order to avert the danger by being self-defensive (Downey et al., 2004).”
From Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review (2017) · cites this paper as Downey et al., 2004
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“We have applied the term high-rejection-sensitive (HRS) to describe people who show a heightened tendency to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection ( Downey & Feldman, 1996 ).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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“…universal needs for acceptance and belonging, important individual differences exist in how peoplerespondtoimaginedoractualrejection Theseresearchersproposedade-fensive motivational system that influences and guides perceived appropriate responding in the face of rejection (Downey et al. 2004).”
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“It draws on the concept of “rejection sensitivity” (Downey et al., 2004), which emphasizes how concerned someone would be to engage in an interaction that carries the potential for rejection.”
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Associations between rejection sensitivity and mental health outcomes: A meta-analytic review
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Rejection sensitivity and the rejection-hostility link in romantic relationships
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“In what we regard as an important test of our conceptualization of RS, we (Downey et al., 2004) looked at startle responses to a white noise burst that occurred while individuals viewed rejection-and acceptance-themed representational works of art (respectively, selected paintings by Edward Hopper…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationRejection sensitivity and borderline personality disorder
Staebler, K., Helbing, E., Rosenbach, C., & Renneberg, B. (2011) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.705 · Cited by 268
Neural Dynamics of Rejection Sensitivity
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“One explanation for why such group differences in amygdala activity were not observed concerns the way the Downey et al. (2004) startle paradigm was modified for use with fMRI in the current experiment.”
InfluentialAyduk, Ö., Gyurak, A., & Luerssen, A. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.07.004 · Cited by 223
“4 1We did not include an acceptance condition because a) in prior research we did not find RS to be related to responses to acceptance (Downey et al., 2004), b) the hot sauce paradigm measures allocation of punishment (presence vs. absence of hot sauce) and not reward and this makes it likely that…”
BackgroundSelf-citationYouth violence: What we know and what we need to know.
Bushman, B. J., Newman, K. S., Calvert, S. L., Downey, G., Dredze, M. H., Gottfredson, M. R., Jablonski, N. G., Masten, A. S., Morrill, C., Neill, D. B., et al. (2016) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0039687 · Cited by 225
The Rejection Sensitivity Model as a Framework for Understanding Sexual Minority Mental Health
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“These defensive expectations, when activated, can heighten perceptions of rejection, fuel negative behavior, and undermine the child’s ability to develop and benefit from subsequent relationships ( Downey et al. 2004 ).”
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Rejection sensitivity and executive control: Joint predictors of borderline personality features
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Kupferberg, A., & Hasler, G. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100631 · Cited by 230
Self-esteem moderates neuroendocrine and psychological responses to interpersonal rejection.
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“In a recent review, Erickson et al. (2003) concluded that cortisol may affect behavior by increasing the readiness to behave—the likelihood of performing certain behaviors in suitable environments.”
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“previously been shown to have an emotional response to rejection-related stimuli (Downey et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPaying to belong: When does rejection trigger ingratiation?
Romero‐Canyas, R., Downey, G., Reddy, K. S., Rodríguez, S., Cavanaugh, T. J., & Pelayo, R. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020013 · Cited by 167
“Their rejection sensitivity (RS) model proposes that, to the extent the individual has experienced the pain of rejection, protecting the self from being in a state of rejection will become a central organizing goal, and a defensively motivated system develops to serve this goal (Downey et al., 2004).”
Zhou, J., Li, X., Tian, L., & Huebner, E. S. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12207 · Cited by 182
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Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia buffers against rejection sensitivity via emotion control
Gyurak, A., & Ayduk, Ö. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.458 · Cited by 106
“Specifically, situations that set off high RS people’s fears and expectations of rejection also activate their defensive motivational system ( Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & Shoda, 2004 ).”
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Kemeny, M. E. (2009) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.08.008 · Cited by 138
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Rudert, S. C., Keller, M., Hales, A. H., Walker, M., & Greifeneder, R. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000271 · Cited by 103
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“Importantly, these subjective construals can reflect both actual ostracism and misperceptions, and depressed individuals may be more sensitive or prone for either (see Downey et al., 2004 ; Liu et al., 2014 on rejection sensitivity).”
Associations Between Rejection Sensitivity, Aggression, and Victimization: A Meta-Analytic Review
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“…or threats of rejection by their partner with hostility, diminished support, or jealousy (Downey, Freitas, Michaelis, & Khouri, 1998, see also Downey et al., 2004, for related argument), On the other hand, however, is it still possible, particularly in societies low in relational mobility,…”
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“[2] propose that this defensive motivational system is particularly sensitive for social rejection in people high in RS.”
BackgroundInfluentialAre fluctuations in personality states more than fluctuations in affect?
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“” Other corroborating indices such as the startle response might be used to provide independent evidence of affective state as has been done in rejection sensitivity research (Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & Shoda, 2004 ).”
Rejection Sensitivity Moderates the Impact of Rejection on Self-Concept Clarity
Ayduk, Ö., Gyurak, A., & Luerssen, A. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209343969 · Cited by 88
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“…AND AVOIDANCE MOTIVATION AND EXPERIENCE OF AND BEHAVIOR IN A SOCIAL INTERACTION Based on the research reported above (e.g., Elliot et al., 2006; Downey et al., 2004; Koestner & McClelland, 1992; McAdams, 1992; Mehrabian, 1994; Schwartz et al., 1999), one might expect that, in a social…”
MethodDefensive Physiological Reactions to Rejection
Gyurak, A., & Ayduk, Ö. N. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01996.x · Cited by 68
The company you keep: Fear of rejection in intergroup interaction
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“Consistent with this notion, high RS individuals have been found to startle more strongly than low RS individuals while viewing artwork by Edward Hopper that depicts scenes of rejection, social isolation, or interpersonal alienation but not while viewing non-representational artwork by Mark Rothko which elicit general…”
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““Expectancies and Beliefs” is the second type of CAUs, which is operationalized as withdrawal because especially anxious expectations and the consequential tendency of social avoidance are evidential person variables explaining inter-individual differences in reactions to ostracism (Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & S…”
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Inzlicht, M., Kaiser, C. R., & Major, B. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.06.004 · Cited by 50
“Similarly, Downey and colleagues showed that individuals who were high in personal rejection-sensitivity reacted to rejection-relevant cues with an augmented startle eye-blink response—a marker of the activation of the defensive motivation system—suggesting that they pay close attention to rejection cues and readily p…”
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Rejection sensitivity and schema-congruent information processing biases
Mor, N., & Inbar, M. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.01.001 · Cited by 50
“related stimuli (Downey et al., 2004) and they interpret ambiguous social situations as denoting rejection (Downey & Feldman, 1996).”
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Trull, T. J., Tomko, R. L., Brown, W. C., & Scheiderer, E. M. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00312.x · Cited by 48
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State and Trait Anger, Fear, and Social Information Processing
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“According to the temporal need-threat model and ostracism research, such reflective coping strategies are moderated by various variables (e.g., gender, rejection sensitivity; Downey et al., 2004; Murray et al., 2002; Williams, 2007, 2009).”
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“They found that individuals with high RS had elevated eye blink startle magnitudes when viewing rejection-themed paintings as compared with acceptance or nonrepresentational negatively themed paintings.(22) They hypothesized that this provides evidence that high-RS individuals automatically activate the DMS when prese…”
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“Participants were presented with previously validated stimuli in the form of evocative paintings proven to elicit feeling of social rejection (Downey et al., 2004; Gyurak and Ayduk, 2007; Kross et al., 2007).”
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“…with HSE or a secure attachment style are unlikely to be concerned about the possibility of rejection, LRS individuals are unlikely to experience heightened DMS activation in potentially rejecting situations, because they view rejection as less probable or of less concern (Downey et al., 2004).”
BackgroundLearning biases underlying individual differences in sensitivity to social rejection.
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“[16] found that when viewing paintings depicting themes of social rejection, rejection sensitive individuals exhibited amplified eyeblink magnitude compared to their response when viewing other types of artwork.”
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“There have been important advances in understanding psychological and physiological responses to interpersonal rejection (e.g., Downey & Feldman, 1996; Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & Shoda, 2004; Powers, Pietromonaco, Gunlicks, & Sayer, 2006).”
Social Cognition and Borderline Personality Disorder
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“A central focus of the current study was the possible role of rejection sensitivity, which has been defined as the “disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection” (Downey et al. 2004, p. 668).”
BackgroundPowers, K. E., Somerville, L. H., Kelley, W. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00446 · Cited by 39
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“In addition to self-report measures, researchers might gather observer’s ratings, or cognitive, behavioral and psychophysiological responses as indices of rejection sensitivity levels (Ayduk et al. 2003; Downey et al. 2004; Gyurak and Ayduk 2007; Kross et al. 2007).”
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“…and college-aged females who endorsed high levels of rejection sensitivity, particularly when they also reported low self-regulatory abilities, also demonstrated a higher incidence of aggressive behaviors than non-rejection-sensitive individuals (Downey et al., 2004; Purdie & Downey, 2000).”
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“Similarly, differences have been found in how men and women navigate digital spaces, (Herring, 1994, 2000) employ face work (Holmes & Schnurr, 2005), and experience threats to their identity (Blackhart et al., 2009; Downey et al., 2004).”
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Victimized at Home Revictimized by Peers: Domestic Child Abuse a Risk Factor for Social Rejection
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“However, if the rejected person is high in RS, an aggressive response to a rejection is more likely [Downey et al., 2000, 2004a,b].”
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“…7 by other-report because, as already mentioned, self-reports of social outcomes are 8 systematically related to differences in information processing depending on social approach 9 and avoidance motives (Downey et al., 2004; Gable & Poore, 2008; Nikitin & Freund, 2011; 10 Strachman & Gable, 2006).”
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“Based on previous studies (Downey et al., 2004; Kross et al., 2007; Berenson et al., 2009) and the results of Study 1, we formulated four hypotheses.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialReiter-Scheidl, K., Papousek, I., Lackner, H. K., Paechter, M., Weiss, E. M., & Aydin, N. (2018) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.08.001 · Cited by 31
Sommerfeld, E., & Bitton, M. S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00044 · Cited by 35
Beaulieu‐Pelletier, G., Bouchard, M., & Philippe, F. L. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21942 · Cited by 27
Predictors of resilience among adolescents of low socio-economic status in India
Narayanan, A. (2015) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540261.2015.1066763 · Cited by 26
“The more students learn to expect rejection and become concerned about it in the school, the more sensitive they are to it, which can eventually lead to self-rejection (Downey et al., 2004; Downey & Feldman, 1996; Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002).”
Hafner, N., Pepping, C. A., & Wertheim, E. H. (2018) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12224 · Cited by 29
Artificial intelligence (AI) in FinTech decisions: the role of congruity and rejection sensitivity
Gonçalves, A. R., Meira, A. B., Shuqair, S., & Pinto, D. C. (2023) · International Journal of Bank Marketing · doi:10.1108/ijbm-07-2022-0295 · Cited by 32
Glosemeyer, R. W., Diekelmann, S., Cassel, W., Kesper, K., Koehler, U., Westermann, S., Steffen, A., Borgwardt, S., Wilhelm, I., Müller‐Pinzler, L., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-74169-8 · Cited by 27
Kross, E. F., & Mischel, W. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195391381.003.0023 · Cited by 24
Ballif-Spanvill, B., Clayton, C. J., & Hendrix, S. B. (2007) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.2.206 · Cited by 22
Self‐Regulation Processes and Their Signatures
Morf, C. C., & Horvath, S. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9781444318111.ch6 · Cited by 22
Borderline Personality Disorder Features and Sensitivity to Injustice
Lis, S., Schaedler, A., Liebke, L., Hauschild, S., Thome, J., Schmahl, C. G., Stahlberg, D., Kleindienst, N., & Bohus, M. (2017) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2017_31_292 · Cited by 23
Bosk, E. A., Williams‐Butler, A., Ruisard, D. J., & MacKenzie, M. J. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104536 · Cited by 40
Shan, H., Ishak, Z., & Fan, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.772129 · Cited by 26
Bondü, R., Bilgin, A., & Warschburger, P. (2020) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23273 · Cited by 26
Winning friends and influencing people: self-presentation motives in physical activity settings
Howle, T. C., Jackson, B., Conroy, D. E., & Dimmock, J. A. (2015) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2014.991346 · Cited by 21
After all I have done for you: Self-silencing accommodations fuel women's post-rejection hostility
Romero‐Canyas, R., Reddy, K. S., Rodríguez, S., & Downey, G. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.03.009 · Cited by 20
The Sting of Rejection: Deferring Blood Donors due to Low Hemoglobin Values Reduces Future Returns
Bruhin, A., Goette, L. F., Haenni, S., Jiang, L., Markovic, A., Roethlisberger, A., Buchli, R., & Frey, B. M. (2019) · Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy · doi:10.1159/000500679 · Cited by 19
“Prior evidence shows that repeated social exclusion can lead to maladaptive responses causing further deferrals (22) and depression (23).”
BackgroundLi, T., Huang, Y., Jiang, M., Ma, S., & Ma, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1082516 · Cited by 21
Metadata
- Authors
- Downey, G., Mougios, V., Ayduk, O., London, B. E., & Shoda, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Long Island University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley;
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 668-673
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2135060565
- Cited by
- 264
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 8.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (1r29mh051113-01)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 51113, MH39349)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- rejection sensitivity, startle response, automatic activation, affective motivation, fear of rejection
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Cues, Defense Mechanisms, Humans, Motivation, Pilot Projects, Surveys and Questionnaires, Rejection, Psychology, Reflex, Startle
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