The missing massive satellites of the Milky Way
Open accessAbstract
Recent studies suggest that only three of the 12 brightest satellites of the Milky Way (MW) inhabit dark matter haloes with maximum circular velocity, Vmax, exceeding ∼30 km s−1. This is in apparent contradiction with the Λ cold dark matter (CDM) simulations of the Aquarius Project, which suggest that MW-sized haloes should have at least eight subhaloes with Vmax > 30 km s−1. The absence of luminous satellites in such massive subhaloes is thus puzzling and may present a challenge to the ΛCDM paradigm. We note, however, that the number of massive subhaloes depends sensitively on the (poorly known) virial mass of the MW, and that their scarcity makes estimates of their abundance from a small simulation set like Aquarius uncertain. We use the Millennium Simulation series and the invariance of the scaled subhalo velocity function (i.e. the number of subhaloes as a function of ν, the ratio of the subhalo Vmax to the host halo virial velocity, V200) to secure improved estimates of the abundance of rare massive subsystems. In the range 0.1 < ν < 0.5, Nsub(>ν) is approximately Poisson distributed about an average given by 〈Nsub〉 = 10.2 (ν/0.15)−3.11. This is slightly lower than that in Aquarius haloes, but consistent with recent results from the Phoenix Project. The probability that a ΛCDM halo has three or fewer subhaloes with Vmax above some threshold value, Vth, is then straightforward to compute. It decreases steeply both with decreasing Vth and with increasing halo mass. For Vth = 30 km s−1, ∼40 per cent of Mhalo = 1012 M⊙ haloes pass the test; fewer than ∼5 per cent do so for Mhalo ≳ 2 × 1012 M⊙ and the probability effectively vanishes for Mhalo ≳ 3 × 1012 M⊙. Rather than a failure of ΛCDM, the absence of massive subhaloes might simply indicate that the MW is less massive than is commonly thought.
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Research works printed but not linked: 4
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“E-mail: cautun@strw.leidenuniv.nl host halo mass (e.g. Purcell & Zentner 2012; Wang et al. 2012; Cautun et al. 2014a; Hellwing et al. 2016) while the radial mass profile plays a key role in determining the orbits of satellite galaxies and tidal streams (e.g. Barber et al. 2014; Monachesi et al.…”
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Self-citationWang, W., Sales, L. V., Henriques, B. M. B., & White, S. D. M. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu988 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
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Self-citationWang, M.-Y., Peter, A. H. G., Strigari, L. E., Zentner, A. R., Arant, B., Garrison-Kimmel, S., & Rocha, M. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1747 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
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Schewtschenko, J. A., Baugh, C. M., Wilkinson, R., Bœhm, C., Pascoli, S., & Sawala, T. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1078 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
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NONLINEAR EVOLUTION OF DARK MATTER SUBHALOS AND APPLICATIONS TO WARM DARK MATTER
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Wang, M.-Y., Croft, R. A. C., Peter, A. H. G., Zentner, A. R., & Purcell, C. W. (2013) · Physical review. D. Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology/Physical review. D. Particles and fields · doi:10.1103/physrevd.88.123515 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
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Strong Dark Matter Self-interactions Diversify Halo Populations within and surrounding the Milky Way
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Cintio, A. D., Knebe, A., Libeskind, N. I., Brook, C. B., Yepes, G., Gottlöber, S., & Hoffman, Y. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt240 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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Bose, S., Deason, A. J., Belokurov, V. A., & Frenk, C. S. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1199 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationThe First Galaxies: Assembly Under Radiative Feedback From The First StarsPreprint
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A robust estimate of the Milky Way mass from rotation curve data
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Shi, D., Li, B., Han, J., Gao, L., & Hellwing, W. A. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1549 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationSATELLITES IN MILKY-WAY-LIKE HOSTS: ENVIRONMENT DEPENDENCE AND CLOSE PAIRS
González, R. E., Kravtsov, A. V., & Gnedin, N. Y. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/770/2/96 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Nierenberg, A. M., Treu, T., Menci, N., Lu, Y., & Wang, W. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/772/2/146 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Subhalo statistics of galactic haloes: beyond the resolution limit
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Self-citationMilky Way total mass derived by rotation curve and globular cluster kinematics from Gaia EDR3
Wang, J., Hammer, F., & Yang, Y. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3258 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationMagellanic satellites in ΛCDM cosmological hydrodynamical simulations of the Local Group
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Self-citationComprehensive assessment of the too big to fail problem
Jiang, F., & van den Bosch, F. C. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1871 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Galactic tides and the shape and orientation of dwarf galaxy satellites
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Self-citationThe mass profile of the Milky Way to the virial radius from the Illustris simulation
Taylor, C., Boylan-Kolchin, M., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., & Hernquist, L. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1522 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Assessing subhalo finders in cosmological hydrodynamical simulations
Moreno, V. J. F., Helly, J. C., McGibbon, R. J., Schaye, J., Schaller, M., Han, J., Kugel, R., & Bahé, Y. M. (2025) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staf1478 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Popolo, A. D., & Delliou, M. L. (2014) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2014/12/051 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
ALMA imprint of intergalactic dark structures in the gravitational lens SDP.81
Inoue, K. T., Minezaki, T., Matsushita, S., & Chiba, M. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw168 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
A new astrophysical solution to the Too Big To Fail problem
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How unusual is the Milky Way’s assembly history?
Evans, T. A., Fattahi, A., Deason, A. J., & Frenk, C. S. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2202 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Wang, J., Frenk, C. S., Navarro, J. F., Gao, L., & Sawala, T.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Venue
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-07-16
- Volume
- 424
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 2715-2721
- ISSN
- 0035-8711 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1944131141
- Cited by
- 185
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 15.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Durham University
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (11133003, 2009CB24901)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- Department for Business, Innovation and Skills
- Virgo Consortium
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (ST/I00162X/1, ST/F002289/1, ST/F010176/1, ST/H008519/1, ST/I001166/1)
- National Key Research and Development Program of China (2009CB24901)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Cosmology and Gravitation Theories
- Keywords
- Milky Way satellites, missing satellites problem, dark matter subhalos, Aquarius Project, Millennium Simulation, PHOENIX project, subhalo abundance, Poisson distribution
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