Cited by 234Personality Disorders and PsychopathologyPersonality Traits and PsychologyMental Health Research Topics

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Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology: II. Further Articulation of a Comprehensive Unified Trait Structure

Watson, David, Clark, Lee Anna, Chmielewski, Michael·2008·Journal of Personality

DOI 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00531.x

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Abstract

ABSTRACT There is increasing agreement that the current categorical system of personality disorders (PDs) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition ( DSM‐IV ; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) should be replaced by a trait dimensional scheme in DSM‐V . In particular, the consensus appears to be converging on a hierarchical Big Four model. The broad factors that form the apex of this hierarchy are essentially maladaptive variants of the Big Five traits of normal personality, minus Openness. We argue that this Big Four model is incomplete, however, in that it fails to model characteristics related to the “odd or eccentric” Cluster A PDs adequately. We report the results of three studies that examine these odd, eccentric characteristics in relation to basic dimensions of normal and abnormal personality. The results of these studies establish the existence of an Oddity factor that is (a) broader than the Cluster A traits and (b) distinct from Openness and the other Big Five dimensions. Consequently, its addition yields an alternative five‐factor model of personality pathology (considering only abnormal traits) and an expanded, integrated Big Six taxonomy that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality characteristics.

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Maternal personality and psychopathology as determinants of parenting behavior: A quantitative integration of two parenting literatures.
McCabe, J. E. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0034835 · Cited by 103
Normal and abnormal personality traits are associated with marital satisfaction for both men and women: An Actor–Partner Interdependence Model analysis
Stroud, C. B., Durbin, C. E., Saigal, S. D., & Knobloch-Fedders, L. M. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.05.011 · Cited by 99
Associations between DSM-5 section III personality traits and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) scales in a psychiatric patient sample.
Anderson, J. L., Sellbom, M., Ayearst, L. E., Quilty, L. C., Chmielewski, M. S., & Bagby, R. M. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000096 · Cited by 90
Self-citation
Five‐Factor Model Personality Disorder Prototypes: A Review of Their Development, Validity, and Comparison to Alternative Approaches
Miller, J. D. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00773.x · Cited by 83
Common Taxonomy of Traits and Symptoms: Linking Schizophrenia Symptoms, Schizotypy, and Normal Personality
Cicero, D. C., Jonas, K. G., Li, K., Perlman, G., & Kotov, R. (2019) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbz005 · Cited by 84
A Five-Factor Measure of Schizotypal Personality Traits
Edmundson, M., Lynam, D. R., Miller, J. D., Gore, W. L., & Widiger, T. A. (2011) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191111408228 · Cited by 81
“Watson, Clark, and Chmielewski (2008) conducted a series of factor analyses that included measures of the FFM along with a variety of measures of schizotypic, dissociative, and other indicators of cognitive– perceptual aberrations.”
Background
Childhood antecedents of personality disorder: An alternative perspective
Widiger, T. A., Clercq, B. J. D., & Fruyt, F. D. (2009) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457940900042x · Cited by 81
“Parsimony would itself suggest that openness includes a maladaptive variant, consistent with the other four domains but not within the six-factor model of Watson et al. (2008).”
Result
The Role of Personality in Psychotherapy for Anxiety and Depression
Zinbarg, R. E., Uliaszek, A. A., & Adler, J. M. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00534.x · Cited by 83
“Many theorists have represented and emphasized the hierarchical structure of the Big Five (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1997; Digman, 1997; Eysenck, 1947; Watson et al., 2008).”
The Conceptualization and Assessment of Schizotypal Traits: A Comparison of the FFSI and PID-5
Crego, C., & Widiger, T. A. (2016) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2016_30_270 · Cited by 77
Integrating a developmental perspective in dimensional models of personality disorders
Clercq, B. J. D., Fruyt, F. D., & Widiger, T. A. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.12.002 · Cited by 78
White matter correlates of psychosis-linked traits support continuity between personality and psychopathology.
Grazioplene, R. G., Chavez, R. S., Rustichini, A., & DeYoung, C. G. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000176 · Cited by 76
Using repeated daily assessments to uncover oscillating patterns and temporally-dynamic triggers in structures of psychopathology: Applications to the DSM–5 alternative model of personality disorders.
Roche, M. J., Jacobson, N. C., & Pincus, A. L. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000177 · Cited by 78
Disintegration: A reconceptualization of psychosis proneness as a personality trait separate from the Big Five
Knežević, G., Savić, D., Kutlesic, V., & Opačić, G. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.06.001 · Cited by 77
“The Oddity trait, proposed by Watson et al. (2008), is similar to our proposed factor in that it represents a wide Disintegration-like trait which lies beyond the FFM, but Oddity is less similar to Disintegration in terms of the lower order facets.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
An Integrative Conceptual Framework for Assessing Personality and Personality Pathology
Leising, D., & Zimmermann, J. (2011) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025070 · Cited by 69
“This latter trait is not part of the Big Five model of personality, but empirical research has demonstrated that a separate factor may be necessary to cover this domain (Watson et al., 2008).”
Background
Striking the (Im)proper balance between scientific advances and clinical utility: Commentary on the DSM–5 proposal for personality disorders.
Pilkonis, P. A., Hallquist, M. N., Morse, J. Q., & Stepp, S. D. (2011) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/a0022226 · Cited by 66
“Watson, Clark, and Chmielewski (2008) found evidence for an oddity dimension characterized by unusual perceptual and cognitive experiences that adds distinctive information beyond more normative expressions of openness to experience, and they suggested that oddity be incorporated into any system…”
Background
Epistemological Pluralism and Scientific Development: An Argument Against Authoritative Nosologies
Markon, K. E. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.5.554 · Cited by 67
Big Five Factor Model, Theory and Structure
Raad, B. D., & Mlačić, B. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25066-6 · Cited by 75
Core Features of Personality Disorder: Differentiating General Personality Dysfunctioning from Personality Traits
Berghuis, H., Kamphuis, J. H., & Verheul, R. (2012) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2012.26.5.704 · Cited by 62
The 5-Dimensional Personality Test (5DPT): Relationships With Two Lexically Based Instruments and the Validation of the Absorption Scale
van Kampen, D. (2011) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2011.627966 · Cited by 62
“However, in a study by Watson, Clark, and Chmielewski (2008), this factor, now labeled Oddity, was actually found to supplement the usual FFM dimensions.”
Multidimensional structure of the Hypomanic Personality Scale.
Schalet, B. D., Durbin, C. E., & Revelle, W. (2011) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0022301 · Cited by 62
Sex ratio dynamics and fluctuating selection on personality
Giudice, M. D. (2011) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.12.004 · Cited by 61
Hierarchical Structure of Maladaptive Personality Traits in Older Adults: Joint Factor Analysis of the PID-5 and the DAPP-BQ
Broeck, J. V. D., Bastiaansen, L., Rossi, G. M. P., Dierckx, E., Clercq, B. J. D., & Hofmans, J. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi_2013_27_114 · Cited by 61
“Analogous joint factor-analytic research by Watson, Clark, and Chmielewski (2008) suggested that markers of “Oddity” (primarily defined by measures of dissociative tendencies and conceptually akin to PID-5’s Psychoticism) formed a common dimension with Neuroticism in their two-, three-, and…”
Background
Shedding light on the Light Triad: Further evidence on structural, construct, and predictive validity of the Light Triad
Lukić, P., & Živanović, M. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110876 · Cited by 59
Behavior genetics of personality disorders: Informing classification and conceptualization in DSM-5.
South, S. C., & DeYoung, N. J. (2012) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/a0026255 · Cited by 57
Personality Disorders As Maladaptive, Extreme Variants of Normal Personality: Borderline Personality Disorder and Neuroticism in a Substance Using Sample
Samuel, D. B., Carroll, K. M., Rounsaville, B. J., & Ball, S. A. (2013) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2013.27.5.625 · Cited by 60
Integrating competing dimensional models of personality: Linking the SNAP, TCI, and NEO using Item Response Theory.
Stepp, S. D., Yu, L., Miller, J. D., Hallquist, M. N., Trull, T. J., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2011) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/a0025905 · Cited by 54
“Including Unconventionality in a dimensional model of personality pathology is somewhat controversial because it is not clear that this construct is relevant to personality pathology (O’Connor & Dyce, 1998; Watson et al., 2008; Watson, Clark, & Harkness, 1994).”
FFMPD scales: Comparisons with the FFM, PID-5, and CAT-PD-SF.
Crego, C., Oltmanns, J. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2018) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000495 · Cited by 52
“…warrants further consideration as they bear on an ongoing issue within the personality disorder field, the relationship of psychoticism with FFM openness (Ashton & Lee, 2012; Chmielewski, Bagby, Markon, Ring, & Ryder, 2014; Crego & Widiger, in press; Gore & Widiger, 2013; Watson et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResult
Maladaptively High and Low Openness: The Case for Experiential Permeability
Piedmont, R. L., Sherman, M. F., & Sherman, N. C. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00777.x · Cited by 53
“Significant correlations were obtained for other EPI scales (e.g., EPI Unrestricted Self with SNAP Passive-Aggressive, and EPI Rigid correlated with SNAP Propriety), but strong relationships were not necessarily expected for these scales, given the failure of the DSM-IV-TR to provide adequate coverage of maladaptively…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Assessing Personality in theDSM–5: The Utility of Bipolar Constructs
Samuel, D. B. (2011) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2011.577476 · Cited by 54
HiTOP thought disorder, DSM-5 psychoticism, and five factor model openness
Widiger, T. A., & Crego, C. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2019.04.008 · Cited by 59
O ddity, Schizotypy/Dissociation, and Personality
Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00735.x · Cited by 49
The prevalence and structure of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder in Hispanic psychiatric outpatients
Ansell, E. B., Pinto, A., Crosby, R. D., Becker, D. F., Anez, L. M., Paris, M., & Grilo, C. M. (2010) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.02.005 · Cited by 50
Age-group differences in facets of positive and negative affect
Ready, R. E., Vaidya, J. G., Watson, D., Latzman, R. D., Koffel, E., & Clark, L. A. (2011) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2011.562184 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Self-pathology, the five-factor model, and bloated specific factors: A cautionary tale.
Oltmanns, J. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000144 · Cited by 47
Development and validation of Big Four personality scales for the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality—Second Edition (SNAP-2).
Calabrese, W. R., Rudick, M. M., Simms, L. J., & Clark, L. A. (2012) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0026915 · Cited by 46
“SNAP Antagonism .29 −.27 .12 BFI Neuroticism .78 −.02 .41 .17 BFI Conscientiousness −.27 .64 −.10 −.22 BFI Extraversion −.31 .00 −.72 .00 BFI Agreeableness −.27 .10 −.28 −.52 FFI Neuroticism .80 −.26 .44 .24 FFI Conscientiousness −.34 .66 −.22 −.17 FFI Extraversion −.42 .20 −.76 −.15 FFI Agreeableness −.35 .13 −.28 −.…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Neural correlates of envy: Regional homogeneity of resting-state brain activity predicts dispositional envy
Xiang, Y., Kong, F., Wen, X., Wu, Q., & Mo, L. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.08.003 · Cited by 47
“Previous studies have found that neuroticism is correlated with the experience of negative emotion, anxiety, and irritability (Watson et al., 2008; Costa and McCrate, 1992).”
Integrating Normal and Abnormal Personality Structure: A Proposal for DSM-V
Widiger, T. A. (2011) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2011.25.3.338 · Cited by 48
Factor Analytic Support for the Five Factor Model
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“For instance, Watson et al. (2008) reported on three different studies, each of which they interpreted as suggesting that schizotypy/oddity reflected a domain outside of the FFM and did not correspond to openness.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Towards a personality model encompassing a Disintegration factor separate from the Big Five traits: A meta-analysis of the empirical evidence
Knežević, G., Lazarević, L. B., Bošnjak, M., Purić, D., Petrović, B., Teovanović, P., Opačić, G., & Bodroža, B. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.044 · Cited by 44

Authors: Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Chmielewski, M.
Affiliations: University of Iowa (US)
Corresponding author: Watson, David
ORCID: Watson, David
Clark, Lee Anna
Chmielewski, Michael
Venue: Journal of Personality
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2008-10-29
Volume: 76
Issue: 6
Pages: 1545-1586
ISSN: 0022-3506 (ISSN-L)
1467-6494
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00531.x
OpenAlex: W1898515047
Cited by: 234
References: 74
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 32
FWCI: 21.19
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: personality structure, personality disorders, Big Five personality traits, Cluster A personality disorders, openness to experience, psychopathology
MeSH terms: Adult, Community Participation, Emotions, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Iowa, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Neurotic Disorders, Personality, Personality Disorders, Personality Inventory, Psychopathology, Students, Universities, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Young Adult

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Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology: II. Further Articulation of a Comprehensive Unified Trait Structure

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