Repeatability for Gaussian and non-Gaussian data: a practical guide for biologists.
Abstract
Repeatability (more precisely the common measure of repeatability, the intra-class correlation coefficient, ICC) is an important index for quantifying the accuracy of measurements and the constancy of phenotypes. It is the proportion of phenotypic variation that can be attributed to between-subject (or between-group) variation. As a consequence, the non-repeatable fraction of phenotypic variation is the sum of measurement error and phenotypic flexibility. There are several ways to estimate repeatability for Gaussian data, but there are no formal agreements on how repeatability should be calculated for non-Gaussian data (e.g. binary, proportion and count data). In addition to point estimates, appropriate uncertainty estimates (standard errors and confidence intervals) and statistical significance for repeatability estimates are required regardless of the types of data. We review the methods for calculating repeatability and the associated statistics for Gaussian and non-Gaussian data. For Gaussian data, we present three common approaches for estimating repeatability: correlation-based, analysis of variance (ANOVA)-based and linear mixed-effects model (LMM)-based methods, while for non-Gaussian data, we focus on generalised linear mixed-effects models (GLMM) that allow the estimation of repeatability on the original and on the underlying latent scale. We also address a number of methods for calculating standard errors, confidence intervals and statistical significance; the most accurate and recommended methods are parametric bootstrapping, randomisation tests and Bayesian approaches. We advocate the use of LMM- and GLMM-based approaches mainly because of the ease with which confounding variables can be controlled for. Furthermore, we compare two types of repeatability (ordinary repeatability and extrapolated repeatability) in relation to narrow-sense heritability. This review serves as a collection of guidelines and recommendations for biologists to calculate repeatability and heritability from both Gaussian and non-Gaussian data.
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The survey was based on the validated International Hospital Outcomes Study questionnaire.
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“By seeing I2 as a type of interclass correlation (also known as repeatability [65],), we can generalize I2 to multilevel models.”
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Defining behavioural syndromes and the role of ‘syndrome deviation’ in understanding their evolution
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Long‐term individual foraging site fidelity—why some gannets don't change their spots
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Behavioural individuality in clonal fish arises despite near-identical rearing conditions
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Restless roosts: Light pollution affects behavior, sleep, and physiology in a free‐living songbird
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An approach to estimate short‐term, long‐term and reaction norm repeatability
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Glucocorticoid-Mediated Phenotypes in Vertebrates
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Personality, Foraging and Fitness Consequences in a Long Lived Seabird
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Natural selection, plasticity and the emergence of a behavioural syndrome in the wild
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Perspectives – Minimizing Observer Bias in Behavioral Studies: A Review and Recommendations
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General Quantitative Genetic Methods for Comparative Biology
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Heritability of telomere variation: it is all about the environment!
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Inferring influence and leadership in moving animal groups
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Consistent individual differences in the social phenotypes of wild great tits, Parus major
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An empiricist guide to animal personality variation in ecology and evolution
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A Tale of Two Phylogenies: Comparative Analyses of Ecological Interactions
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“…and formulae presented for the ‘Single Measurement Per Subject’ study design using a corrected k0 instead of k (number of measurements per subject) (Nakagawa and Schielzeth 2010) as k0 = 1 n− 1 ( N− ∑n i=1 ki 2 N ) (11) where n is the number of subjects, N is the total number of measurements,…”
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Criteria for acceptable studies of animal personality and behavioural syndromes
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Symbioses shape feeding niches and diversification across insects
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Dominance and plumage traits: meta-analysis and metaregression analysis
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Characterizing behavioural ‘characters’: an evolutionary framework
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Parental provisioning behaviour plays a key role in linking personality with reproductive success
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Personality variation in a clonal insect: The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum
Schuett, W., Dall, S. R. X., Baeumer, J., Kloesener, M. H., Nakagawa, S., Beinlich, F. R. M., & Eggers, T. (2011) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20538 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Slow explorers take less risk: a problem of sampling bias in ecological studies
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Urbanization Is Associated with Divergence in Pace-of-Life in Great Tits
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Test-retest reliability of graph metrics of resting state MRI functional brain networks: A review
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Within seasons and among years: When are corticosterone levels repeatable?
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- Authors
- Nakagawa, S., & Schielzeth, H.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Nakagawa, Shinichi
- Schielzeth, Holger
- Venue
- Biological Reviews
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-06-21
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 935-956
- ISSN
- 0006-3231 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-7931
- 1469-185X
- OpenAlex
- W2045443942
- Cited by
- 2,584
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 109 · 2025: 165 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 171 · 2022: 235 · 2021: 222 · 2020: 206 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 215 · 2017: 198 · 2016: 183 · 2015: 167 · 2014: 136 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 78
- FWCI
- 8.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Reliability and Agreement in Measurement
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Geometry and Topology › Morphological variations and asymmetry
- Keywords
- repeatability, intraclass correlation coefficient, non-Gaussian data, linear mixed models, measurement error, phenotypic flexibility, statistical significance, parametric bootstrapping, permutation tests, Bayesian approach, narrow-sense heritability, binary data, count data, proportion data
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Phenotype, Regression Analysis, Statistics as Topic, Reproducibility of Results, Confidence Intervals, Normal Distribution, Linear Models, Least-Squares Analysis
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