Inhibitory control in anxious and healthy adolescents is modulated by incentive and incidental affective stimuli.

“…with facilitated attention and orienting responses (i.e., Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007; Dalgleish et al., 2003; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Mogg & Bradley, 1998) that include cognitive control processes (see Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Miller & Cohen, 2001).”

“…with facilitated attention and orienting responses (i.e., Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007; Dalgleish et al., 2003; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Mogg & Bradley, 1998) that include cognitive control processes (see Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Miller & Cohen, 2001).”

“…Health. for anxious adolescents included: (1) primary diagnosis of an anxiety disorder based on a semi-structured diagnostic interview (K-SADS; Kaufman et al., 1997); (2) Children’s Global Assessment Scale’s score < 60 (CGAS; Shaffer et al., 1983); (3) Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale score > 9…”

“Accuracy was considered a metric of effectiveness, providing an index of the overall quality of task performance (Eysenck et al., 2007).”

“Anxiety disorders are associated with threat attention biases (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Roy et al., 2008; Williams et al., 1996) and an exaggerated response to incentives (Hardin et al.”

“…disorder based on a semi-structured diagnostic interview (K-SADS; Kaufman et al., 1997); (2) Children’s Global Assessment Scale’s score < 60 (CGAS; Shaffer et al., 1983); (3) Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale score > 9 (RUPP, 2001); (4) desire for outpatient treatment; and (5) age between 9 and 17…”

“Given the neural arousal observed during the processing of salient stimuli in human neuroimaging studies (i.e., Davis & Whalen, 2001; Knutson, Adams, Fong, & Hommer, 2001; Knutson & Cooper, 2005; Vuilleumier, 2005), presentation of salient stimuli during the response preparation period in the…”

“Anxiety disorders are associated with threat attention biases (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Roy et al., 2008; Williams et al., 1996) and an exaggerated response to incentives (Hardin et al.”

“Given the neural arousal observed during the processing of salient stimuli in human neuroimaging studies (i.e., Davis & Whalen, 2001; Knutson, Adams, Fong, & Hommer, 2001; Knutson & Cooper, 2005; Vuilleumier, 2005), presentation of salient stimuli during the response preparation period in the current study was expecte…”

“Theories of anxiety suggest that threat-related affective cues raise states of arousal disproportionally to the level of actual danger (see Beck & Clark, 1997; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Mogg & Bradley, 1998).”

“The underlying neural mechanisms are suggested to involve bottom-up (stimulus-driven) modulation, by which incentives activate meso-striatal cortical loops (Cardinal, Parkinson, Hall, & Everitt, 2002; Schultz, 2006), which in turn enhance the signal-to-noise ratio in inhibitory circuits and result in enhanced inhibito…”

“…from non-human primate studies examining cognitive control (response inhibition) indicate that increased neural arousal (i.e., increased cell firing) during a ‘preparatory period’, prior to a required behavioral response, facilitates successful inhibitory control (see Munoz & Everling, 2004).”

“Over the past 20 years, research has focused on the role of cognition in the development and maintenance of these disorders (Beck & Clark, 1997; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Eysenck, 1992; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007).”

“…observed during the processing of salient stimuli in human neuroimaging studies (i.e., Davis & Whalen, 2001; Knutson, Adams, Fong, & Hommer, 2001; Knutson & Cooper, 2005; Vuilleumier, 2005), presentation of salient stimuli during the response preparation period in the current study was expected…”

“For example, amygdala recruitment is sometimes reported in reward-processing studies (see Holland & Gallagher, 2004; Murray, 2007), while striatal involvement occurs during the coding of negative emotional events (see Delgado, Li, Schiller, & Phelps, 2008).”

“For example, amygdala recruitment is sometimes reported in reward-processing studies (see Holland & Gallagher, 2004; Murray, 2007), while striatal involvement occurs during the coding of negative emotional events (see Delgado, Li, Schiller, & Phelps, 2008).”

“Indeed, co-occurring threat cues can produce interference with cognitive processes and lead to performance decrements (i.e., Bishop, 2008; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996).”

“…are associated with facilitated attention and orienting responses (i.e., Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007; Dalgleish et al., 2003; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Mogg & Bradley, 1998) that include cognitive control processes (see Corbetta & Shulman, 2002;…”

“Anxiety disorders are associated with threat attention biases (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Roy et al., 2008; Williams et al., 1996) and an exaggerated response to incentives (Hardin et al.”

“Performance improvements were observed in both the effectiveness (accuracy) and efficiency (latency) measures, arguing for a robust effect (Ansari et al., 2008; Derakshan et al., 2009).”

“Additional self-report anxiety measures were collected with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, 1983), and self-report depression measures were collected with the Children’s depression Inventory (CDI; Helsel & Matson, 1984; Kovacs, 1982).”

“Raw eye movement data was analyzed off-line with ILAB software (Gitelman, 2002).”

“Using the same MID task, additional studies examined the neural response to potential rewards in adolescents with an anxiety disorder (Guyer at al., in prep), and adolescents at high risk for an anxiety disorder by virtue of a behaviorally inhibited temperament (Guyer et al., 2006).”

“Likewise, presentation of salient stimuli during the preparatory period correspond with increased neural arousal and performance (see Hikosaka, 2007).”

“Performance improvements were observed in both the effectiveness (accuracy) and efficiency (latency) measures, arguing for a robust effect (Ansari et al., 2008; Derakshan et al., 2009).”

“The bivalent nature of the incentive condition in this study was based on previous behavioral findings that implicated improved performance following cues signaling either winning or not winning, and cues signaling either losing or not losing (i.e., Hardin et al., 2007).”

“This finding is consistent with previous work employing similar antisaccade paradigms (i.e., Hardin et al., 2007; Jazbec et al., 2005), and may be mediated by a facilitating influence of motivational arousal on inhibitory control processes.”

“Over the past 20 years, research has focused on the role of cognition in the development and maintenance of these disorders (Beck & Clark, 1997; Ehrenreich & Gross, 2002; Eysenck, 1992; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007).”

“A clever study used an antisaccade task that required the participant to look in the opposite direction from a cue to measure self-control under rewarding and nonrewarding conditions (Hardin et al. 2009).”

“com [42,43] used an antisaccade task to measure cognitive control behavior and promised a financial reward for accurate performance on some trials but not others.”

“Some studies, consistent with what is presented here, have demonstrated progressively lesser recruitment of prefrontal cortical regions with increasing age (Hardin et al., 2009; Velanova, Wheeler, & Luna, 2008).”

“…the progressive underlying maturation of frontostriatal systems that regulate cognitive control (Bunge and Wright, 2007; Christakou et al., 2009b; Geier et al., 2010; Hardin et al., 2009; Hare et al., 2008; Luna et al., 2001; Ordaz et al., 2010; Rubia et al., 2009, 2010, 2000, 2007, 2006).”

“During an inhibitory control task, performance in both anxious and healthy adolescents improved following presentation of reward, indicating normative reward processing, however, anxious adolescents did not improve inhibitory control after presentation of interpersonally rewarding positive stimuli (happy faces) while…”

“For example, Hardin et al.(36) and Jazbec et al.”

“…Cisler & Koster, 2010 or reviews) and poor prepotent response inhibition (Ansari & erakshan, 2010; Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, Eysenck, 009; Hardin et al., 2009; Jazbec, McClure, Hardin, Pine, & Ernst, 005; Sehlmeyer et al., 2010; Wieser, Pauli, & Mühlberger, 2009). he Attentional Control…”

“The task has previously been modified to measure fluctuations in oculomotor inhibition in response to motivational and emotional cues (Hardin et al., 2009).”

“Somerville and Casey (2010) have indicated that the trajectory is determined by the context/extent in which control is necessary for regulatory behavior abilities whereby emotionally charged, rewarding or aversive contexts reduce control (Hardin et al. 2009).”

“…processing ncreases during this maturational period (Galvan, 2010). or example, monetary reward in adolescence leads to nhanced anti-saccade performance (Hardin et al., 2009) nd increased reactivity in brain regions commonly assoiated with reward (e.g., nucleus accumbens, Galvan et al., 006).”

“rewards; happy faces) enhance inhibitory control (Hardin et al., 2009; Kohls et al., 2009; Teslovich et al., 2014), perhaps by serving to mo-”

“Preliminary encouragement for such an endeavor comes from a behavioral study in anxious adolescents that has examined the impact of concurrent reward and incidental emotion processing on antisaccade performance (Hardin et al., 2009).”

“According to ACT, anxiety impairs processing efficiency to a greater extent than effectiveness, a prediction that has recently received accumulating support (see Derakshan & Eysenck, 2009 , for a review; Hardin et al, in press ).”

“Recent work by Ernst and colleagues (Hardin et al., 2009; Jazbec et al., 2006) showed improved performance on an impulse control task (antisaccade task) when promised a financial reward for accurate performance on some trials but not others.”

“Few studies have examined the relationship between social anxiety and risk-taking behavior in adolescents; the majority of studies have included college-aged and up participants (see Hardin et al., 2009 and Myers, Aarons, Tomlinson, & Stein, 2003 for exceptions).”

“…et al., 2000) and neuroanatomical levels (Sylvester et al., 2003), develop at different rates (Luna, Garver, Urban, Lazar, & Sweeney, 2004), and may have a different sensitivity to emotional material (De Houwer & Tibboel, 2010; Hardin et al., 2009; Levens & Gotlib, 2010; Levens & Phelps, 2008).”

“Imaging research supports the potential protective role of increased striatal response during reward-related preparation for inhibition in adolescents compared to adults and children (Geier et al., 2010; Hardin et al., 2009).”

“Finally, a few studies examine saccade metrics in anxiety, but these studies either examine adults or embed emotional stimuli within pro- and antisaccade trials (Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, & Eysenck, 2009; Hardin et al., 2009; Mueller, Hardin, Korelitz, et al., 2012; Mueller, Hardin, Mogg, et al., 2012).”

“First, relative to controls, anxious and depressed adolescents show an overall deficit in inhibitory performance (Hardin et al. 2009; Hardin et al. 2007; Jazbec et al. 2005), a finding that is consistent with some contemporary models of information-processing associated with these disorders…”

“New discoveries have emerged in our understanding of reward processing in anxiety with the use of monetary incentive cues that highlight how incentives modulate approach and avoidance behaviors [ 98, 99 ] .”

“…characterized by decision-making bias (e.g., risk aversion) (Maner and Schmidt 2006; Maner et al. 2007; Lorian and Grisham 2010, 2011; Lorian et al. 2012a,b) and deviant responses to incentives (i.e., reward or punishment) (Hardin et al. 2007a; DeVido et al. 2009; Hardin et al. 2009; Goschke 2014).”

“Yet, state NA improved IC performance in anxious adolescents, but not in healthy controls (Constantinou et al., 2010; Hardin et al., 2009).”

“The positivity bias in healthy adolescents is consistent with prior work among healthy adolescents, compared to clinical comparisons, in which positive affective material impaired performance—when used as a distractor [20]—, and increased performance—when used as the target stimuli [50].”

“The Emotional Antisaccade task has also been used to explore attentional processes in adolescents with clinical levels of anxiety (Hardin et al., 2009; Hardin, Schroth, Pine, & Ernst, 2007).”

“In other words, their performance improves more than adults because they are more motivated by the financial reward [7].”

“…anxiety was not directly assessed, despite evidence that anxiety can impair inhibitory control and efficient top-down attentional regulation and that such effects may be particularly relevant when affective distractors compete with task goals (Ansari and Derakshan, 2010; Hardin et al., 2009).”