A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy
Open accessAbstract
Despite decades of declining crime rates, longstanding tensions between police and the public continue to frustrate the formation of cooperative relationships necessary for the function of the police and the provision of public safety. In response, policy makers continue to promote community-oriented policing (COP) and its emphasis on positive, nonenforcement contact with the public as an effective strategy for enhancing public trust and police legitimacy. Prior research designs, however, have not leveraged the random assignment of police–public contact to identify the causal effect of such interactions on individual-level attitudes toward the police. Therefore, the question remains: Do positive, nonenforcement interactions with uniformed patrol officers actually cause meaningful improvements in attitudes toward the police? Here, we report on a randomized field experiment conducted in New Haven, CT, that sheds light on this question and identifies the individual-level consequences of positive, nonenforcement contact between police and the public. Findings indicate that a single instance of positive contact with a uniformed police officer can substantially improve public attitudes toward police, including legitimacy and willingness to cooperate. These effects persisted for up to 21 d and were not limited to individuals inclined to trust and cooperate with the police prior to the intervention. This study demonstrates that positive nonenforcement contact can improve public attitudes toward police and suggests that police departments would benefit from an increased focus on strategies that promote positive police–public interactions.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
A randomized field experiment in New Haven, CT found that brief door-to-door nonenforcement community policing visits substantially improved residents’ attitudes toward police, including legitimacy and willingness to cooperate. Effects remained large at a 21-d follow-up and were largest among nonwhite respondents and those with the most negative baseline views.
Key findings
- The intervention improved overall attitudes toward police on a 0–100 index 3 d after treatment (ITT: t=6.94, P<0.001; ATT: t=7.15, P<0.001) and 21 d after treatment (ITT: t=3.83, P<0.001; ATT: t=3.85, P<0.001). Among treated individuals, attitudes increased by about 7 points at first follow-up.
- Effects appeared across all four primary outcomes—legitimacy, perceived effectiveness, cooperation, and compliance—with the strongest immediate effects on perceptions of police performance and legitimacy.
- Among black respondents who were successfully contacted, the initial effect was ∼11 scale points, nearly twice the 6-point effect among white respondents. Effects were strongest among individuals with the most negative views toward police at baseline.
- Secondary outcomes showed a 9.5-point increase in generalized positivity toward police on a 0–100 feeling thermometer, increased confidence in police, and raised support for a 10% increase in police staffing. The intervention caused a small reduction in support for body-worn cameras at 3 d, but this was not statistically distinguishable from 0 at 21 d.
Methods
- Randomized field experiment with the New Haven, CT police department across its 10 police districts. Uniformed patrol officers made unannounced door-to-door nonenforcement community policing visits, typically a brief 10-min conversation, ending with a personalized business card.
- Registered voters (n = 49,757) were mailed an ostensibly unrelated baseline survey; 2,013 individuals in 1,852 households completed it. Random assignment was at the household level: 926 households (1,007 individuals) to treatment and 926 households (1,006 individuals) to control. Of 1,007 treatment individuals, 412 were successfully reached at the door.
- Follow-up online surveys were conducted 3 d after intervention (n = 1,484 respondents) and 21 d after intervention (n = 1,069 respondents). Outcomes were scaled 0–100; primary outcomes tapped legitimacy, perceived effectiveness, cooperation, and compliance. Analyses estimated intent-to-treat (ITT) and average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) effects under a preanalysis plan, with balance and differential attrition checks.
Limitations
- The paper states it is premature to conclude the intervention could be replicated in another jurisdiction or across the nearly 18,000 state and local law enforcement agencies in the United States; shrinking budgets and hiring/retention issues may pose barriers. It also states positive nonenforcement contact is “no panacea” for police brutality, corruption, and racial bias, and that improved police–public relations are necessary but not sufficient for more just, effective policing.
- The paper states only two follow-up surveys were conducted because of insufficient research funds, and that “trust in government” measures have long-standing validity concerns and were not included in the 21-d survey.
- Evident from the text: the study is set in one city and one police department; only 412 of 1,007 treatment-assigned individuals were successfully reached at the door; outcomes rely on a survey panel of registered voters who completed the baseline and follow-ups; follow-up is limited to 21 d; and the paper notes future research is needed on downstream outcomes such as crime rates, crime reporting, and neighborhood violence.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 18 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The intervention increased self-reported willingness to comply with police directives.
“The intervention also increased self-reported willingness to cooperate with police and willingness to comply with police directives.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The visits increased generalized positivity toward police by 9.5 points on a 0 to 100 point "feeling thermometer" scale.
“the visits increased generalized positivity toward police by 9.5 points on 0 to 100 point “feeling thermometer” scale.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention increased self-reported willingness to cooperate with police.
“The intervention also increased self-reported willingness to cooperate with police and willingness to comply with police directives.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention was broadly effective across all preregistered subgroups.
“The intervention was also broadly effective across all preregistered subgroups (Fig. 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention improved attitudes toward police on secondary outcome measures.
“the intervention also improved attitudes toward police on our secondary outcome measures (Fig. 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Among those who were treated, attitudes toward the police increased by about 7 points on a 0 to 100 scale in the first follow-up survey.
“among those who were treated, attitudes toward the police increased by about 7 points on a 0 to 100 scale in the first follow-up survey.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The effect of the intervention was evident across all 4 primary outcome measures.
“The effect of the intervention was evident across all 4 primary outcome measures (Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention had a significant positive effect on overall attitudes toward the police as measured by an index of all primary outcome measures 21 d after the intervention.
“and 21 d after the intervention (ITT: t=3.83;P<0.001; ATT: t=3.85;P<0.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention had a significant positive effect on overall attitudes toward the police as measured by an index of all primary outcome measures 3 d after the intervention.
“The intervention had a significant positive effect on overall attitudes toward the police as measured by an index of all primary outcome measures 3 d after the intervention (ITT: t=6.94;P<0.001; ATT: t=7.15;P<0.001)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The visits had the strongest effect among individuals who held the most negative views toward police prior to the intervention as measured in the baseline survey.
“the visits had the strongest effect among individuals who held the most negative views toward police prior to the intervention as measured in the baseline survey (SI Appendix, section 5.2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Among black respondents who were successfully contacted, the intervention had an initial effect of ∼11 scale points-nearly twice as large as the 6-point effect among white respondents.
“Among black respondents who were successfully contacted, the intervention had an initial effect of ∼11 scale points—nearly twice as large as the 6-point effect among white respondents (SI Appendix, section 5.1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The visits had a large positive effect on an index of questions about respondents' confidence in the police.
“the visits had a large positive effect on an index of questions about respondents’ confidence in the police”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention did not have a durable effect on residents' support for body-worn cameras at the 21-d follow-up.
“but these effects were not statistically distinguishable from 0 in the 21-d follow-up, suggesting that the officer visits did not have a durable effect on residents’ support for this popular initiative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention raised support for a policy to increase the number of police on the street by 10%.
“We also found that the intervention raised support for a policy to increase the number of police on the street by 10%”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was little evidence that the visits improved diffuse support for local government institutions beyond the police.
“we found little evidence that the visits improved diffuse support for local government institutions beyond the police as measured with a battery of trust in government questions”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The intervention caused a small reduction in support for body-worn cameras in the 3-d follow-up survey.
“We find evidence that the intervention caused a small reduction in support for body-worn cameras in the 3-d follow-up survey”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Differential attrition was not detected in any wave.
“differential attrition was not detected in any wave (SI Appendix, Tables S11 and S12).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Prior to the intervention, individuals in treatment and control scored similarly on all primary outcome indices.
“Prior to the intervention, individuals in treatment and control scored similarly on all primary outcome indices (SI Appendix, Fig. S10).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Background characteristics remained balanced across treatment and control for all subsequent survey waves.
“Background characteristics remained balanced across treatment and control for all subsequent survey waves (SI Appendix, Tables S7–S10)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Efficacy was not limited to those subgroups inclined to have positive attitudes toward police prior to the intervention.
“Thus, efficacy was not limited to those subgroups inclined to have positive attitudes toward police prior to the intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Positive interpersonal contact can have a powerful effect on attitudes, even in the case of a single brief interaction.
“positive interpersonal contact can have a powerful effect on attitudes (23–25), even in the case of a single brief interaction (26).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [23] Allport G. W., The Nature of Prejudice (Basic Books, 1954).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [24] Pettigrew T. F., Tropp L. R., A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 90, 751– 783 (2006). 16737372 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [25] Paluck E. L., Green S. A., Green D. P., The contact hypothesis re-evaluated. Behav. Publ. Policy, 1– 30 (2018).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Broockman D., Kalla J., Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing. Science 352, 220– 224 (2016). 27124458 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Field interventions demonstrating the efficacy of brief instances of positive contact for durable attitude change are still rare.
“field interventions demonstrating the efficacy of brief instances of positive contact for durable attitude change are still rare (25, 28).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [25] Paluck E. L., Green S. A., Green D. P., The contact hypothesis re-evaluated. Behav. Publ. Policy, 1– 30 (2018).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [28] Paluck E. L., Green D. P., Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 339– 367 (2009). 18851685 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductnone given
None of the units assigned to control were treated.
“since none of the units assigned to control were treated”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Prior research designs have not leveraged the random assignment of police-public contact to identify the causal effect of such interactions on individual-level attitudes toward the police.
“prior research designs have not leveraged the random assignment of police–public contact to identify the causal effect of such interactions on individual-level attitudes toward the police (12–14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [12] Hawdon J., Ryan J., Police-resident interactions and satisfaction with police: An empirical test of community policing assertions. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 14, 55– 74 (2003). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [13] Manning P. K., Community policing. Am. J. Police 3, 205– 227 (1984).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [14] Gill C., Weisburd D., Telep C. W., Vitter Z., Bennett T., Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: A systematic review. J. Exp. Criminol. 10, 399– 428 (2014). source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The results provide clear empirical support for the efficacy of policing strategies aimed at improving attitudes toward the police via positive nonenforcement contact between officers and the communities they serve.
“The results reported here provide clear empirical support for the efficacy of policing strategies aimed at improving attitudes toward the police via positive nonenforcement contact between officers and the communities they serve.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The intervention provides an example of how a relatively simple change to police behavior can have a substantial positive effect on measures of both values-based and behavioral legitimacy.
“The intervention described here provides an example of how a relatively simple change to police behavior can have a substantial positive effect on measures of both values-based and behavioral legitimacy (35).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [35] Levi M., Sacks A., Tyler T., Conceptualizing legitimacy, measuring legitimating beliefs. Am. Behav. Sci. 53, 354– 375 (2009). source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
When police lack legitimacy, residents are less likely to contact police or cooperate with their investigations.
“When police lack legitimacy, residents are less likely to contact police or cooperate with their investigations (4, 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [4] Carr P. J., Napolitano L., Keating J., We never call the cops and here is why: A qualitative examination of legal cynicism in three Philadelphia neighborhoods. Criminology 45, 445– 480 (2007). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [5] Desmond M., Papachristos A. V., Kirk D. S., Police violence and citizen crime reporting in the black community. Am. Sociol. Rev. 81, 857– 876 (2016). source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 3
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe immediate effect was strongest on perceptions of police performance and legitimacy, and these effects were also evident in the 21-d follow-up.
“The immediate effect was strongest on perceptions of police performance and legitimacy, and these effects were also evident in the 21-d follow-up.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe intervention caused a substantial reduction in generalized negative attitudes toward police as captured by a reduction in negative beliefs about police officers as a group and an increase in perceived warmth toward police on the feeling thermometer.
“Of particular note is the substantial reduction in generalized negative attitudes toward police as captured by a reduction in negative beliefs about police officers as a group and an increase in perceived warmth toward police on the feeling thermometer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe study included both primary (confirmatory) and secondary (exploratory) outcomes as specified in a preanalysis plan.
“As specified in our preanalysis plan (PAP) (SI Appendix, Appendix C), we included both primary (confirmatory) and secondary (exploratory) outcomes in the online panel survey.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenRandom assignment took place at the household level so that all individuals living in the same household received the same treatment assignment.
“Random assignment took place at the household level so that all individuals living in the same household received the same treatment assignment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA National Academy of Sciences report concluded that research is needed that tests the ability of a single interaction to shape general views about police legitimacy.
“A recent report by the National Academy of Sciences, for example, characterized the few empirical studies in this domain as insufficient, concluding that “research is needed that tests the ability of a single interaction to shape general views about police legitimacy” (29).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] National Academies of Sciences Engineering, Medicine, Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities (The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2018).
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPositive interpersonal contact does not necessarily lead to attitude change in contexts where intergroup relations are charged by a history of violent conflict.
“positive interpersonal contact does not necessarily lead to attitude change in contexts where intergroup relations are charged by a history of violent conflict (27)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] Scacco A., Warren S. S., Can social contact reduce prejudice and discrimination? Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 112, 654– 677 (2018). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe intervention provides evidence in support of the power of positive intergroup contact, extending these insights to interactions between uniformed patrol officers and the individuals they police.
“The intervention reported here provides evidence in support of the power of positive intergroup contact, extending these insights to interactions between uniformed patrol officers and the individuals they police.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPolice legitimacy is widely acknowledged as a necessary condition for lower crime and increased public safety.
“Although police legitimacy is widely acknowledged as a necessary condition for lower crime and increased public safety (40, 41)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [40] Tyler T. R., Fagan J., Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? Ohio State J. Crim. Law 6, 231– 275 (2008).
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [41] Mazerolle L., Bennett S., Davis J., Sargeant E., Manning M., Procedural justice and police legitimacy: A systematic review of the research evidence. J. Exp. Criminol. 9, 245– 274 (2013). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
PremisecitationLegitimacy is vital to the effective function of police as a social institution.
“Legitimacy—the belief that an individual, group, or institution has the authority to dictate an individual’s behavior and demand their cooperation—is vital to the effective function of police as a social institution (2, 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] Tyler T. R., Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57, 375– 400 (2006). 16318600 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [3] Tyler T. R., Jackson J., Popular legitimacy and the exercise of legal authority: Motivating compliance, cooperation, and engagement. Psychol. Public Policy Law 20, 78– 95 (2014). source
Not checked in the free run.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Public views of criminal justice actors reciprocally shape and are shaped by institutional behavior.
“This approach builds on research showing that public views of criminal justice actors reciprocally shape and are shaped by institutional behavior (20–24).”
From Does civilian oversight impact police legitimacy? (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
The Abstract (page unavailable) reports that positive police contact improved residents’ attitudes toward police and their willingness to cooperate, supporting the direction from institutional behavior to public views. The Discussion (page unavailable) likewise says a change in police behavior improved measures of legitimacy. Neither passage establishes the reverse claim that public views shape institutional behavior. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Shaping Police Officer Mindsets and Behaviors: Experimental Evidence of Procedural Justice Training
Canales, R., Santini, J. F., González Magaña, M., & Cherem, A. (2025) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2022.03243 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Does civilian oversight impact police legitimacy?
Schiff, K. J., Schiff, D. S., Moy, B. J., McCrain, J., Mourtgos, S. M., & Adams, I. T. (2025) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf267 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This approach builds on research showing that public views of criminal justice actors reciprocally shape and are shaped by institutional behavior (20 – 24).”
- Authors
- Peyton, K., Sierra-Arévalo, M., & Rand, D. G.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- School of Criminal Justice, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102;
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Peyton, Kyle
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-09-16
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 40
- Pages
- 19894-19898
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6778229
- OpenAlex
- W2973726740
- Semantic Scholar
- bbad0abde856444f054bb34d0c911b20ff672049
- Cited by
- 254
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 17
- FWCI
- 94.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2023-04-13)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Institution for Social and Policy Studies, Yale University (NA)
- The Justice Collaboratory, Yale Law School (NA)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- community policing, police legitimacy, public trust in police, willingness to cooperate, police-public relations, attitudes toward police
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Cities, Community-Institutional Relations, Connecticut, Cooperative Behavior, Crime, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Public Opinion, Police, Community Networks, Trust, Law Enforcement
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