Stress and the reproductive axis
Open accessAbstract
There exists a reciprocal relationship between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes, wherein the activation of one affects the function of the other and vice versa. For example, both testosterone and oestrogen modulate the response of the HPA axis, whereas activation of the stress axis, especially activation that is repeating or chronic, has an inhibitory effect upon oestrogen and testosterone secretion. Alterations in maternal care can produce significant effects on both HPG and HPA physiology, as well as behaviour in the offspring at adulthood. For example, changes in reproductive behaviour induced by altered maternal care may alter the expression of sex hormone receptors such as oestrogen receptor (ER)α that govern sexual behaviour, and may be particularly important in determining the sexual strategies utilised by females. Stress in adulthood continues to mediate HPG activity in females through activation of a sympathetic neural pathway originating in the hypothalamus and releasing norepinephrine into the ovary, which produces a noncyclic anovulatory ovary that develops cysts. In the opposite direction, sex differences and sex steroid hormones regulate the HPA axis. For example, although serotonin (5-HT) has a stimulatory effect on the HPA axis in humans and rodents that is mediated by the 5-HT1A receptor, only male rodents respond to 5-HT1A antagonism to show increased corticosterone responses to stress. Furthermore, oestrogen appears to decrease 5-HT1A receptor function at presynaptic sites, yet increases 5-HT1A receptor expression at postsynaptic sites. These mechanisms could explain the heightened stress HPA axis responses in females compared to males. Studies on female rhesus macaques show that chronic stress in socially subordinate female monkeys produces a distinct behavioural phenotype that is largely unaffected by oestrogen, a hyporesponsive HPA axis that is hypersensitive to the modulating effects of oestrogen, and changes in 5-HT1A receptor binding in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of social subordinate female monkeys that are restored or inverted by oestrogen replacement. This review summarises all of these studies, emphasising the profound effect that the interaction of the reproductive and stress axes may have on human reproductive health and emotional wellbeing.
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A relationship exists between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes, and both testosterone and oestrogen modulate the response of the HPA axis.
“As a relationship exists between the hypothala mic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-go nadal (HPG) axes, and both testosterone and oestrogen modulate the response of the HPA axis (Toufexis et al., 2014)”
From Effect of weather conditions and presence of visitors on adrenocortical activity in captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) (2017) · cites this paper as Toufexis et al., 2014
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“Edges were verified independently using our implementation of a Bayesian sentiment analysis classifier35. Disagreements between MedScan and this platform were reviewed and adjudicated by the authors.”
From Leveraging Prior Knowledge of Endocrine Immune Regulation in the Therapeutically-relevant Phenotyping of Women with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
The provided sections on serotonin, stress, and reproductive physiology do not address a Bayesian sentiment-analysis classifier, MedScan, edge verification, or adjudication. Searches of our full-text copy for those methods likewise found no relevant passage. The source therefore does not verify the attributed methods claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
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- [156]Michopoulos V Checchi M Sharpe D Wilson ME Estradiol effects on behavior and serum oxytocin are modified by social status and polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene in female rhesus monkeys Hormones and behavior 2011 59 4 528 535 21316367 PMC3081406
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“exercising in a fasted state can blunt fat oxidation [240], whereas exercising in a fed state will result in a greater total daily energy expenditure and increased fat oxidation, potentially improving body composition [134,135].”
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- Authors
- Toufexis, D., Rivarola, M. A., Lara, H., & Viau, V.
- Affiliations
- University of Vermont (US)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (AR)
- University of Chile (CL)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Toufexis, D.
- Venue
- Journal of Neuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2014-08-24
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 573-586
- ISSN
- 0953-8194 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2826
- PMC
- PMC4166402
- OpenAlex
- W2085026395
- Cited by
- 350
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 1.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Universidad de Chile (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Conicet (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Funders
- Fondecyt (1130049)
- CONICET
- SECyT-UNC
- NIH (HD 046501, MH081816, F31MH085445, RR00165)
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research CIHR (MOP-42555)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- stress, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, maternal care, estrogen receptor alpha, sexual behavior, anovulation, norepinephrine, 5-HT1A receptor, sex differences, estrogen, chronic stress, social dominance, rhesus monkeys, corticosterone, reproductive health, emotional well-being
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Models, Biological, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Reproduction, Serotonin, Sex Characteristics, Social Dominance, Stress, Psychological, Sympathetic Nervous System
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