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Regulation Mechanisms and Signaling Pathways of Autophagy
Open accessAbstract
Autophagy is a process of self-degradation of cellular components in which double-membrane autophagosomes sequester organelles or portions of cytosol and fuse with lysosomes or vacuoles for breakdown by resident hydrolases. Autophagy is upregulated in response to extra- or intracellular stress and signals such as starvation, growth factor deprivation, ER stress, and pathogen infection. Defective autophagy plays a significant role in human pathologies, including cancer, neurodegeneration, and infectious diseases. We present our current knowledge on the key genes composing the autophagy machinery in eukaryotes from yeast to mammalian cells and the signaling pathways that sense the status of different types of stress and induce autophagy for cell survival and homeostasis. We also review the recent advances on the molecular mechanisms that regulate the autophagy machinery at various levels, from transcriptional activation to post-translational protein modification.
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“Three different forms of autophagy have been described in mammalian cells: macroautophagy, microautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy (Fig. 3) (Cuervo, 2009; He and Klionsky, 2009; Mizushima et al., 2008).”
From Protein Homeostasis and Aging: the importance of exquisite quality control (2011) · cites this paper as He and Klionsky, 2009
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Li, J., Ni, M., Lee, B., Barrón, E., Hinton, D. R., & Lee, A. S. (2008) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2008.81 · Cited by 459
Egr-1 Regulates Autophagy in Cigarette Smoke-Induced Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chen, Z.-H., Kim, H. P., Sciurba, F. C., Lee, S.-J., Feghali-Bostwick, C., Stolz, D. B., Dhir, R., Landreneau, R. J., Schuchert, M. J., Yousem, S. A., et al. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003316 · Cited by 459
Microtubules Facilitate Autophagosome Formation and Fusion of Autophagosomes with Endosomes
Köchl, R., Hu, X. W., Chan, E. Y. W., & Tooze, S. A. (2005) · Traffic · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0854.2005.00368.x · Cited by 458
Chen, Y., McMillan‐Ward, E., Kong, J., Israels, S. J., & Gibson, S. B. (2007) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.011163 · Cited by 444
Structural basis of target recognition by Atg8/LC3 during selective autophagy
Noda, N. N., Kumeta, H., Nakatogawa, H., Satoo, K., Adachi, W., Ishii, J., Fujioka, Y., Ohsumi, Y., & Inagaki, F. (2008) · Genes to Cells · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2443.2008.01238.x · Cited by 437
Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors
Marks, P. A., Richon, V. M., Miller, T., & Kelly, W. K. (2004) · Advances in cancer research · doi:10.1016/s0065-230x(04)91004-4 · Cited by 432
An Atg1/Atg13 Complex with Multiple Roles in TOR-mediated Autophagy Regulation
Chang, Y.-Y., & Neufeld, T. P. (2009) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e08-12-1250 · Cited by 430
Dynein mutations impair autophagic clearance of aggregate-prone proteins
Ravikumar, B., Acevedo-Arozena, A., Imarisio, S., Berger, Z., Vacher, C., O'Kane, C. J., Brown, S. D. M., & Rubinsztein, D. C. (2005) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng1591 · Cited by 416
Chan, E. Y. W., Longatti, A., McKnight, N. C., & Tooze, S. A. (2009) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.01082-08 · Cited by 411
The Unfolding Tale of the Unfolded Protein Response
Ma, Y., & Hendershot, L. M. (2001) · Cell · doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00623-7 · Cited by 404
Autophagic control of listeria through intracellular innate immune recognition in drosophila
Yano, T., Mita, S., Ohmori, H., Oshima, Y., Fujimoto, Y., Ueda, R., Takada, H., Goldman, W. E., Fukase, K., Silverman, N. S., et al. (2008) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.1634 · Cited by 401
MyD88 and Trif Target Beclin 1 to Trigger Autophagy in Macrophages
Shi, C.-S., & Kehrl, J. H. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m804478200 · Cited by 395
Induction of incomplete autophagic response by hepatitis C virus via the unfolded protein response†
Sir, D., Chen, W., Choi, J., Wakita, T., Yen, T. S. B., & Ou, J. J. (2008) · Hepatology · doi:10.1002/hep.22464 · Cited by 378
Nezis, I. P., Simonsen, A., Sagona, A. P., Finley, K., Gaumer, S., Contamine, D., Rusten, T. E., Stenmark, H., & Brech, A. (2008) · The Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1083/jcb.200711108 · Cited by 370
BNIP3 Is an RB/E2F Target Gene Required for Hypoxia-Induced Autophagy
Tracy, K., Dibling, B. C., Spike, B. T., Knabb, J. R., Schumacker, P., & Macleod, K. F. (2007) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.02246-06 · Cited by 369
Ishihara, N., Hamasaki, M., Yokota, S., Suzuki, K., Kamada, Y., Kihara, A., Yoshimori, T., Noda, T., & Ohsumi, Y. (2001) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.12.11.3690 · Cited by 368
Mechanism of Cargo Selection in the Cytoplasm to Vacuole Targeting Pathway
Shintani, T., Huang, W.-P., Stromhaug, P. E., & Klionsky, D. J. (2002) · Developmental Cell · doi:10.1016/s1534-5807(02)00373-8 · Cited by 362
Self-citationAzad, M. B., Chen, Y., Henson, E. S., Cizeau, J., McMillan‐Ward, E., Israels, S. J., & Gibson, S. B. (2008) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.5278 · Cited by 355
ESCRTs and Fab1 Regulate Distinct Steps of Autophagy
Rusten, T. E., Vaccari, T., Lindmo, K., Rodahl, L. M., Nezis, I. P., Sem-Jacobsen, C., Wendler, F., Vincent, J., Brech, A., Bilder, D. H., et al. (2007) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.09.032 · Cited by 355
Obara, K., Sekito, T., Niimi, K., & Ohsumi, Y. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m803180200 · Cited by 350
Rheb Binding to Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) Is Regulated by Amino Acid Sufficiency
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Hypoxia signals autophagy in tumor cells via AMPK activity, independent of HIF-1, BNIP3, and BNIP3L
Papandreou, I., Lim, A. L., Laderoute, K., & Denko, N. C. (2008) · Cell Death & Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2008.84 · Cited by 334
PKR-Dependent Xenophagic Degradation of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1
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PpAtg30 Tags Peroxisomes for Turnover by Selective Autophagy
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The class III PI(3)K Vps34 promotes autophagy and endocytosis but not TOR signaling in Drosophila
Juhász, G., Hill, J. H., Yan, Y., Sass, M., Baehrecke, E. H., Backer, J., & Neufeld, T. P. (2008) · The Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1083/jcb.200712051 · Cited by 321
Reiling, J. H., & Hafen, E. (2004) · Genes & Development · doi:10.1101/gad.322704 · Cited by 306
Atg17 Functions in Cooperation with Atg1 and Atg13 in Yeast Autophagy
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Wang, Z., Wilson, W. A., Fujino, M., & Roach, P. J. (2001) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.21.17.5742-5752.2001 · Cited by 300
Organization of the Pre-autophagosomal Structure Responsible for Autophagosome Formation
Kawamata, T., Kamada, Y., Kabeya, Y., Sekito, T., & Ohsumi, Y. (2008) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e07-10-1048 · Cited by 294
Atg22 Recycles Amino Acids to Link the Degradative and Recycling Functions of Autophagy
Yang, Z., Huang, J., Geng, J., Nair, U., & Klionsky, D. J. (2006) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e06-06-0479 · Cited by 293
Self-citationImpairing the bioenergetic status and the biogenesis of mitochondria triggers mitophagy in yeast
Priault, M., Salin, B., Schaëffer, J., Vallette, F. M., di Rago, J.-P., & Martinou, J. (2005) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401697 · Cited by 292
Role of JNK1-dependent Bcl-2 Phosphorylation in Ceramide-induced Macroautophagy
Pattingre, S., Bauvy, C., Carpentier, S., Levade, T., Levine, B., & Codogno, P. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m805920200 · Cited by 290
Fass, E., Shvets, E., Degani, I., Hirschberg, K., & Elazar, Z. (2006) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m607031200 · Cited by 286
Golgi-resident Small GTPase Rab33B Interacts with Atg16L and Modulates Autophagosome Formation
Itoh, T., Fujita, N., Kanno, E., Yamamoto, A., Yoshimori, T., & Fukuda, M. (2008) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e07-12-1231 · Cited by 283
Pattingre, S., Bauvy, C., & Codogno, P. (2003) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m210998200 · Cited by 279
Regulation of Autophagy by the p300 Acetyltransferase
Lee, I. H., & Finkel, T. (2009) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m807135200 · Cited by 277
How to Live Long and Prosper: Autophagy, Mitochondria, and Aging
Yen, W.-L., & Klionsky, D. J. (2008) · Physiology · doi:10.1152/physiol.00013.2008 · Cited by 271
Self-citationCvt19 Is a Receptor for the Cytoplasm-to-Vacuole Targeting Pathway
Scott, S. V., Guan, J., Hutchins, M. U., Kim, J., & Klionsky, D. J. (2001) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/s1097-2765(01)00263-5 · Cited by 269
Self-citationAtg9 Cycles Between Mitochondria and the Pre-Autophagosomal Structure in Yeasts
Reggiori, F., Shintani, T., Chong, H., Nair, U., & Klionsky, D. J. (2005) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.1.2.1840 · Cited by 266
Self-citationGözüaçık, D., Bialik, S., Raveh, T., Mitou, G., Shohat-Ophir, G., Sabanay, H., Mizushima, N., Yoshimori, T., & Kimchi, A. (2008) · Cell Death and Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2008.121 · Cited by 266
Activation of the RAS/Cyclic AMP Pathway Suppresses a TOR Deficiency in Yeast
Schmelzle, T., Beck, T. W., Martin, D. E., & Hall, M. N. (2003) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.24.1.338-351.2004 · Cited by 261
PARP-1 is involved in autophagy induced by DNA damage
Muñoz‐Gámez, J. A., Rodríguez-Vargas, J. M., Quiles, R., Aguilar‐Quesada, R., Martín‐Oliva, D., de MURCIA, G., Murcia, J. M., Almendros-Ruiz, A., de Almodóvar, J. M. R., & Oliver, F. J. (2009) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.5.1.7272 · Cited by 253
Cheong, H., Nair, U., Geng, J., & Klionsky, D. J. (2008) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e07-08-0826 · Cited by 245
Self-citationZhang, Y., Yan, L., Zhou, Z., Yang, P., Tian, E., Zhang, K., Zhao, Y., Li, Z., Song, B., Han, J., et al. (2009) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.12.022 · Cited by 239
STRØMHAUG, P. E., Reggiori, F., Guan, J., Wang, C.-W., & Klionsky, D. J. (2004) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e04-02-0147 · Cited by 238
Self-citationProtein Kinase A and Sch9 Cooperatively Regulate Induction of Autophagy inSaccharomyces cerevisiae
Yorimitsu, T., Zaman, S., Broach, J. R., & Klionsky, D. J. (2007) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e07-05-0485 · Cited by 237
Self-citationAn evolutionary proteomics approach identifies substrates of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase
Budovskaya, Y. V., Stephan, J. S., Deminoff, S. J., & Herman, P. K. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0501046102 · Cited by 236
Pexophagy: The Selective Autophagy of Peroxisomes
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He, C., Song, H., Yorimitsu, T., Monastyrska, I., Yen, W.-L., Legakis, J. E., & Klionsky, D. J. (2006) · The Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1083/jcb.200606084 · Cited by 219
Self-citationAut5/Cvt17p, a Putative Lipase Essential for Disintegration of Autophagic Bodies inside the Vacuole
Epple, U. D., Suriapranata, I., Eskelinen, E., & Thumm, M. (2001) · Journal of Bacteriology · doi:10.1128/jb.183.20.5942-5955.2001 · Cited by 218
DJ-1/PARK7 is an important mediator of hypoxia-induced cellular responses
Vasseur, S., Afzal, S., Tardivel‐Lacombe, J., Park, D. S., Iovanna, J., & Mak, T. W. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0812745106 · Cited by 217
Degradation of Lipid Vesicles in the Yeast Vacuole Requires Function of Cvt17, a Putative Lipase
Teter, S. A., Eggerton, K. P., Scott, S. V., Kim, J., Fischer, A. M., & Klionsky, D. J. (2001) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.c000739200 · Cited by 216
Self-citationBudovskaya, Y. V., Stephan, J. S., Reggiori, F., Klionsky, D. J., & Herman, P. K. (2004) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m400272200 · Cited by 215
Self-citationMidbody ring disposal by autophagy is a post-abscission event of cytokinesis
Pohl, C., & Jentsch, S. (2008) · Nature Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/ncb1813 · Cited by 204
eIF4GI links nutrient sensing by mTOR to cell proliferation and inhibition of autophagy
Ramírez‐Valle, F., Braunstein, S. E., Zavadil, J., Formenti, S. C., & Schneider, R. J. (2008) · The Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1083/jcb.200710215 · Cited by 198
Coenzyme Q deficiency triggers mitochondria degradation by mitophagy
Rodríguez-Hernández, Á., Cordero, M. D., Salviati, L., Artuch, R., Pineda, M., Briones, P., Izquierdo, L. G., Cotán, D., Navas, P., & Sánchez-Alcázar, J. A. (2009) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.5.1.7174 · Cited by 197
Nice, D. C., Sato, T. K., STRØMHAUG, P. E., Emr, S. D., & Klionsky, D. J. (2002) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m204736200 · Cited by 191
Self-citationAtg27 Is Required for Autophagy-dependent Cycling of Atg9
Yen, W.-L., Legakis, J. E., Nair, U., & Klionsky, D. J. (2006) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e06-07-0612 · Cited by 190
Self-citationAtg17 Regulates the Magnitude of the Autophagic Response
Cheong, H., Yorimitsu, T., Reggiori, F., Legakis, J. E., Wang, C.-W., & Klionsky, D. J. (2005) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e04-10-0894 · Cited by 187
Self-citationProtein Kinase Cθ Is Required for Autophagy in Response to Stress in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Sakaki, K., Wu, J., & Kaufman, R. J. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m710209200 · Cited by 185
Autophagy: A Forty-Year Search for a Missing Membrane Source
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Ras is involved in the negative control of autophagy through the class I PI3-kinase
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Reggiori, F., Monastyrska, I., Shintani, T., & Klionsky, D. J. (2005) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e05-07-0629 · Cited by 155
Self-citationKlionsky, D. J., Cuervo, A. M., Dunn, W. A., Levine, B., van der Klei, I. J., & Seglen, P. O. (2007) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.4377 · Cited by 149
Self-citationElongation Factor-2 Kinase Regulates Autophagy in Human Glioblastoma Cells
Wu, H., Yang, J., Jin, S., Zhang, H., & Hait, W. N. (2006) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-1554 · Cited by 146
ATG1, an autophagy regulator, inhibits cell growth by negatively regulating S6 kinase
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Host Cell Autophagy Is Induced by Toxoplasma gondii and Contributes to Parasite Growth
Wang, Y., Weiss, L. M., & Orlofsky, A. (2008) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m807890200 · Cited by 136
A Cycling Protein Complex Required for Selective Autophagy
Legakis, J. E., Yen, W.-L., & Klionsky, D. J. (2007) · Autophagy · doi:10.4161/auto.4129 · Cited by 129
Self-citationReggiori, F., Wang, C.-W., Nair, U., Shintani, T., Abeliovich, H., & Klionsky, D. J. (2004) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e03-07-0479 · Cited by 128
Self-citationHe, C., Baba, M., Cao, Y., & Klionsky, D. J. (2008) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e08-05-0544 · Cited by 127
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Arp2 Links Autophagic Machinery with the Actin Cytoskeleton
Monastyrska, I., He, C., Geng, J., Hoppe, A. D., Li, Z., & Klionsky, D. J. (2008) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e07-09-0892 · Cited by 118
Self-citationReggiori, F., Wang, C.-W., STRØMHAUG, P. E., Shintani, T., & Klionsky, D. J. (2003) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m210436200 · Cited by 108
Self-citationHrzenjak, A., Kremser, M., Strohmeier, B., Moinfar, F., Zatloukal, K., & Denk, H. (2008) · The Journal of Pathology · doi:10.1002/path.2434 · Cited by 103
Kubota, H., Obata, T., Ota, K., Sasaki, T., & Ito, T. (2003) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.c300133200 · Cited by 103
Meiling-Wesse, K., Epple, U. D., Krick, R., Barth, H., Appelles, A., Voss, C., Eskelinen, E., & Thumm, M. (2005) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m501701200 · Cited by 99
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Oh, M., Choi, I.-K., & Kwon, H. J. (2008) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.03.019 · Cited by 97
Tap42-associated protein phosphatase type 2A negatively regulates induction of autophagy
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Self-citationAtg19 Mediates a Dual Interaction Cargo Sorting Mechanism in Selective Autophagy
Chang, C.-Y., & Huang, W. (2006) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e06-08-0683 · Cited by 60
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Metadata
- Authors
- He, C., & Klionsky, D. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Genetics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2009-12-01
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 67-93
- ISSN
- 0066-4197 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2948
- PMC
- PMC2831538
- OpenAlex
- W2096308078
- Cited by
- 3,609
- References
- 176
- Citations by year
- 2026: 89 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 184 · 2023: 188 · 2022: 198 · 2021: 258 · 2020: 270 · 2019: 253 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 291 · 2016: 249 · 2015: 246 · 2014: 251 · 2013: 199 · 2012: 229
- FWCI
- 21.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM 53396, R01GM053396)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Autophagy in Disease and Therapy
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Physiology › Calcium signaling and nucleotide metabolism
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Ubiquitin and proteasome pathways
- Keywords
- autophagy, autophagy regulation, signaling pathways, autophagy machinery, stress response, starvation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, growth factor deprivation, pathogen infection, lysosomal degradation, transcriptional activation, post-translational modification, cancer, neurodegeneration, infectious diseases
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autophagy, Eukaryotic Cells, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Lysosomes, Phagosomes, Signal Transduction
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