Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

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Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

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Patel, S., & Fan, J. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.1101/2023.07.17.549421 · Cited by 18
Five Breakthroughs: A First Approximation of Brain Evolution From Early Bilaterians to Humans
Bennett, M. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2021.693346 · Cited by 19
“The idea that emotional contagion evolved first, subserved by older frontal regions, and ToM then emerged later, subserved by newer primate frontal regions, has similarly been proposed by other (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Public Expressions of Empathy and Sympathy by U.S. Criminal Justice Officials After Controversial Police Killings of African-Americans
Maguire, E. R., & Giles, H. (2021) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x211057238 · Cited by 15
“The affective dimension focuses on people’s experience of feeling the same affective or emotional state as another (Anderson & Giles, 2009; Chismar, 1988; de Waal, 2008; Duan & Hill, 1996).”
Background
DiffusEmp: A Diffusion Model-Based Framework with Multi-Grained Control for Empathetic Response Generation
Bi, G., Shen, L., Cao, Y., Chen, M., Xie, Y., Lin, Z., & He, X. (2023) · Proceedings of the conference - Association for Computational Linguistics. Meeting · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.acl-long.158 · Cited by 20
The expression of empathy in human's closest relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees: current and future directions
Brooker, J. S., Webb, C. E., de Waal, F. Β. Μ., & Clay, Z. (2024) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.13080 · Cited by 17
“This is termed targeted helping (de Waal, 2008), and is thought to require accurate perspective-taking of another individual ’ s situation in order to provide an effective response (Yamamoto et al ., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effects of Wisdom-Enhancement Narrative-Therapy and Empathy-Focused interventions on loneliness over 4 weeks among older adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Jiang, D., Tang, V. F. Y., Kahlon, M. K., Chow, E. O.-W., Yeung, D. Y.-L., Aubrey, R., & Chou, K. (2024) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2024.07.003 · Cited by 15
Teachers treat aggressive children: An outcome study
Shechtman, Z., & Tutian, R. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.04.005 · Cited by 15
Empathy, Altruism, and Helping: Conceptual Distinctions, Empirical Relations
Batson, D. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271698.002 · Cited by 15
Genetic factors associated with empathy in humans and mice
Keum, S., & Shin, H. (2019) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.01.029 · Cited by 14
“Empathy is the ability to identify other people's feelings, thoughts, and intentions and to respond to the mental state of others with an appropriate emotion (Bernhardt and Singer, 2012; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Morality, Activism and Radicalism in the Brazilian Left and the Brazilian Right
Filho, M. G., & Modesto, J. G. (2019) · Temas em Psicologia · doi:10.9788/tp2019.3-12 · Cited by 16
“Evidence that supports this foundation can be found in studies of empathy (de Waal, 2008) and in the Theory of Attachment (Bowlby, 1969).”
Background
What drives the (un)empathic bystander to intervene? Insights from eye tracking
Hu, Y., Fiedler, S., & Weber, B. (2019) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12354 · Cited by 15
“As a personality trait, it has been shown to be associated with moral and prosocial behaviour (De Waal, 2008; Decety, Bartal, Uzefovsky, &Knafo-Noam, 2016; Dovidio, 1991; Preston&DeWaal, 2002) and has reliably been associated with helping behaviour in a variety of different paradigms (Coke et al.,…”
Background
Evaluating the Advertising Effectiveness Of Noncelebrity Endorsers
Gräve, J.-F., Schnittka, O., & Haiduk, C. (2021) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.2501/jar-2021-011 · Cited by 20
Exploring the Relationship Between Social Ties and Resilience From Evolutionary Framework
Agashe, S., Kumar, S., & Rai, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Dynamics · doi:10.3389/fhumd.2021.683755 · Cited by 21
“In evolution, survival and reproductive success of species depend on the balance between benefits and costs. de Waal (2008) pointed out that consequences of behavior form the basis of evolutionary analysis.”
Background
Rage donations and mobilization: Understanding the effects of advocacy on collective giving responses
Chapman, C. M., Lizzio‐Wilson, M., Mirnajafi, Z., Masser, B., & Louis, W. R. (2022) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12522 · Cited by 15
Mindful Attention as a Skillful Means Toward Intergroup Prosociality
Berry, D. R., Rodriguez, K., Tasulis, G., & Behler, A. M. C. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-01926-3 · Cited by 15
“…or perspective taking in social cognitive and affective (neuro)science (Zaki & Mitchell, 2013)—entails adopting or imagining the sensory, motor, visceral, and affective states of others through bottom-up cognitive processes (de Waal, 2008; Decety & Jackson, 2004; Gallese, 2003; Zaki, 2014).”
Background
Fostering of a wild, injured, juvenile by a neighbouring group: implications for rehabilitation and release of Barbary macaques confiscated from illegal trade
Campbell, L. (2019) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-019-00729-w · Cited by 15
“It may have been driven by personal distress, a self-motivated response whereby another’s distress evokes a matched state that the bystander seeks to alleviate through affiliation (de Waal 2008).”
Background
Indirect exposure to socially defeated conspecifics using recorded video activates the HPA axis and reduces reward sensitivity in mice
Nakatake, Y., Furuie, H., Ukezono, M. M., Yamada, M., Yoshizawa, K., & Yamada, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-73988-z · Cited by 16
Empathic communication as a “Risky strength” for health during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of frontline Italian healthcare workers
Barello, S., Palamenghi, L., & Graffigna, G. (2020) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2020.06.027 · Cited by 15
“clinicians’ empathy positively impacts on quality of care, it should not be forgotten that more empathic clinicians might be at higher risk of distress [6].”
Development of a Marmoset Apparatus for Automated Pulling to study cooperative behaviors
Meisner, O. C., Shi, W., Fagan, N. A., Greenwood, J. S. F., Jadi, M. P., Nandy, A. S., & Chang, S. W. C. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.97088 · Cited by 21
“…involves integrating complex information like social relationships and the goals and intentions of oneself and others ( Brosnan et al., 2010 ; de Waal, 2008 ; Nowak and Sigmund, 2005 ; Lozano et al., 2020 ; Bliege Bird et al., 2018 ; Mustoe et al., 2016 ; Fehr and Rockenbach, 2004 ; Axelrod and…”
Background
Novel behaviour shown by an Asian elephant in the context of allomothering
Vidya, T. N. C. (2014) · acta ethologica · doi:10.1007/s10211-013-0168-y · Cited by 13

Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

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