Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

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Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

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“These behaviors lie at the core of healthy social relationships and are a key facilitator of social cohesion and group bonding (de Waal, 2008; Fehr & Camerer, 2007; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).”
Background
Developing the Social Empathy Index: An Exploratory Factor Analysis
Segal, E. A., Wagaman, M. A., & Gerdes, K. E. (2012) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/2042 · Cited by 57
Cultural modulation of the neural correlates of emotional pain perception: The role of other-focusedness
Cheon, B. K., Im, D.-M., Harada, T., Kim, J.-S., Mathur, V. A., Scimeca, J. M., Parrish, T. B., Park, H., & Chiao, J. Y. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.03.018 · Cited by 60
‘ Canis empathicus ’? A proposal on dogs' capacity to empathize with humans
Silva, K., & de Sousa, L. (2011) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0083 · Cited by 58
What can we learn about emotion by studying psychopathy?
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Altruistic behavior: mapping responses in the brain
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Horses feel emotions when they watch positive and negative horse–human interactions in a video and transpose what they saw to real life
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“1998; de Waal 2007, 2012).”
Background
The psychophysiological measurement of empathy
Neumann, D. L., & Westbury, H. R. (2011) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 58
Beyond disposition: The processing consequences of explicit and implicit invocations of empathy
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“Both empathy and identi ﬁ cation involve perspective taking (Cohen, 2001; de Waal, 2008) when we consider or imagine the world from other people's viewpoints and “ anticipate the behavior and reactions of others ” (Davis, 1983, p. 115; also seeGalinsky, Wang, & Ku, 2008 ).”
The Effects of Physicians’ Communication and Empathy Ability on Physician–Patient Relationship from Physicians’ and Patients’ Perspectives
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“This process helps facilitate interpersonal communication and relationships between individuals and others (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Examining the relationship of empathy, social support, and prosocial behavior of adolescents in China: a structural equation modeling approach
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“Individuals with empathy ability can perceive others’ feelings and give feedback, which can positively predict their interpersonal skills (Cano & de C Williams, 2010; Chen et al., 2011; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Affective empathy as core moral agency: psychopathy, autism and reason revisited
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Post‐conflict third‐party affiliation in chimpanzees: what's in it for the third party?
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“The most favored suggestion for the mechanism of chimpanzee TPA, proposed by the ‘‘pro-social consolation’’-hypothesis, is empathy [de Waal, 2008; de Waal & Aureli, 1996; Palagi et al., 2006; Preston & de Waal, 2002].”
Twin relationships: A comparison across monozygotic twins, dizygotic twins, and nontwin siblings in early childhood
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The surprising empathic abilities of rodents
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Reminders of mortality decrease midcingulate activity in response to others’ suffering
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Helping Others, Warming Yourself: Altruistic Behaviors Increase Warmth Feelings of the Ambient Environment
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“At the individual level, altruism is often non-economic and even maladaptive to survival because the altruistic performer needs to share his/her own resources and energy with others without receiving explicit returns (Batson, 1991; Myers, 1993; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Both selfishness and selflessness start with the self: How wealth shapes responses to charitable appeals
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“Although people routinely express a desire to help those in need (De Waal, 2008), people also routinely fail to follow through on their best intentions (Gollwitzer, 1999).”
Background
Conceptualization and Measurement of Adolescent Prosocial Behavior: Looking Back and Moving Forward
Mallah, S. E. (2019) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12476 · Cited by 62
A Scientific Search for Altruism
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The effects of embodying wildlife in virtual reality on conservation behaviors
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When Adaptations Go Awry: Functional and Dysfunctional Aspects of Social Anxiety
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Can we share the joy of others? Empathic neural responses to distress vs joy
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Rudimentary empathy in macaques’ social decision-making
Ballesta, S., & Duhamel, J. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1504454112 · Cited by 57
Does a rat release a soaked conspecific due to empathy?
Schwartz, L. P., Silberberg, A. M., Casey, A. H., Kearns, D. N., & Slotnick, B. M. (2016) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-016-1052-8 · Cited by 54
Infants’ intention-based evaluations of distributive actions
Geraci, A., Simion, F., & Surian, L. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105429 · Cited by 62
Gender Differences in Empathy During Adolescence: Does Emotional Self-Awareness Matter?
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The influence of tour guides’ service quality on tourists' tour guide stigma judgment: An asian perspective
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Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

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