Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

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Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

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Development of socio-emotional competence in bonobos
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“The evolutionary advantage of empathy is not at issue since many of its non- propositional aspects appear to be transmitted along phylogeny, especially among species for which reproduction relies on parental care (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
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“At least seven experiments have reported that socially excluded individuals show a reduction in self-control when they are led to believe that their actions will have no impact on future acceptance (de Waal, 2008).”
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“The former is much more common than the latter in the animal kingdom, possibly due to diﬀerences in the complexity of underlying cognitive mechanisms ( de Waal & Aureli, 1996 ; de Waal, 2008 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“De Waal (2008) reviewed in a chapter of the Annual Review of Psychology the accumulated research on altruistic motivation, showing also the incompleteness of understanding motivation in exclusively self-interested terms.”
Background
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“It encompasses the ability to feel empathy (Batson et al., 1991; De Waal, 2008), which impacts a favorable attitude to share knowledge (van den Hooff et al., 2012).”
Background

Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

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