Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

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Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

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“” [21] [65].”
Piece of cake? Allocating rewards to third parties when fairness is costly
Johansson, L., & Svedsäter, H. (2009) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.02.001 · Cited by 31
“Previous research also supports the idea that altruism may exist as an empathic reaction in response to another’s need or distress, not only in humans but also in birds and mammals (de Waal, 2008).”
Result
Embodied Simulation and Touch: the Sense of Touch in Social Cognition
Gallese, V., & Ebisch, S. J. H. (2016) · Phenomenology and Mind · doi:10.13128/phe_mi-19602 · Cited by 32
“…the other, processes allowing one to maintain a coherent and unique sense of self, comprising self-other discrimination (ebisch et al. 2011, 2012; de Waal, 2008; cheng et al. 2007; lamm et al. 2007; batson et al. 1987). according to this perspective, identity and alterity – together with…”
Background
Looking on the Bright Side of Livestock Emotions—the Potential of Their Transmission to Promote Positive Welfare
Baciadonna, L., Düpjan, S., Briefer, E. F., de la Torre, M. P., & Nawroth, C. (2018) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00218 · Cited by 34
How resource sharing resists scarcity: the role of cognitive empathy and its neurobiological mechanisms
Cui, F., Huang, X., Jing, Y., Luo, Y., Liu, J., & Gu, R. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhac017 · Cited by 32
Beyond romance: Neural and genetic correlates of altruism in pair-bonds.
Acevedo, B. P., Poulin, M. J., & Brown, L. L. (2019) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/bne0000293 · Cited by 35
The impact of empathy and perspective-taking instructions on proponents and opponents of immigration
Klimecki, O., Vétois, M., & Sander, D. (2020) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00581-0 · Cited by 32
“Similar to perspective taking, empathy has been extensively studied as a precursor of altruism and reduced aggression (de Waal, 2008; Eisenberg and Miller, 1987; Miller and Eisenberg, 1988), as well as a facilitator of interpersonal and intergroup relations (Batson and Ahmad, 2009; Dovidio et al.,…”
Background
Kindness as a Stress Reduction–Health Promotion Intervention: A Review of the Psychobiology of Caring
Fryburg, D. A. (2021) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/1559827620988268 · Cited by 37
Application of insects to wounds of self and others by chimpanzees in the wild
Mascaro, A., Southern, L. M., Deschner, T., & Pika, S. (2022) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.045 · Cited by 32
Closing the empathy gap: A narrative review of the measurement and reduction of parochial empathy
Behler, A. M. C., & Berry, D. R. (2022) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12701 · Cited by 33
Toward Artificial Empathy for Human-Centered Design
Zhu, Q., & Luo, J. (2023) · Journal of Mechanical Design · doi:10.1115/1.4064161 · Cited by 37
The relevance of moral norms in distinct relational contexts: Purity versus harm norms regulate self-directed actions
Dungan, J. A., Chakroff, A., & Young, L. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173405 · Cited by 38
Best Practices for Early Bystander Intervention Training on Workplace Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Bullying
Lassiter, B. J., Bostain, N. S., & Lentz, C. (2018) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518807907 · Cited by 32
“In spite of a lack of research on WIPV and WB, the concept of altruism and empathy toward helping others during periods of crisis or suffering provided the theory behind moving forward with this study (de Waal, 2008).”
Result
Artificial Pain May Induce Empathy, Morality, and Ethics in the Conscious Mind of Robots
Asada, M. (2019) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies4030038 · Cited by 32
Right Temporoparietal Junction Involvement in Autonomic Responses to the Suffering of Others: A Preliminary Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study
Miller, J. G., Xia, G., & Hastings, P. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00007 · Cited by 31
“Although compassion and empathy are generally both considered emotional mechanisms of prosociality (de Waal, 2008; Davidov et al., 2016), compassion is more strongly linked to positive social and personal outcomes like prosocial behavior toward others (Jordan et al., 2016) and increased positive…”
Background
A dual-process perspective on over-imitation
Schleihauf, H., & Hoehl, S. (2020) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2020.100896 · Cited by 34
Effects of compassion training on brain responses to suffering others
Ashar, Y. K., Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., Halifax, J. S., Dimidjian, S., & Wager, T. D. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab052 · Cited by 37
A unified neural account of contextual and individual differences in altruism
Hu, J., Konovalov, A., & Ruff, C. C. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.80667 · Cited by 31
“Altruism – incurring own costs to benefit others - is fundamental for cooperation and productivity in human societies (de Waal, 2008; Piliavin and Charng, 1990).”
Background
Fairness modulates non-conscious facial mimicry in women
Hofman, D., Bos, P. A., Schutter, D. J. L. G., & van Honk, J. (2012) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.0694 · Cited by 33
Study of the Levels of Human–Human and Human–Animal Empathy in Veterinary Medical Students from Chile
Calderón-Amor, J., Luna, D., & Tadich, T. (2017) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme.0216-038r · Cited by 32
Ethological Approaches to Empathy in Primates
Clay, Z., Palagi, E., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805397-3.00005-x · Cited by 32
Fluid intelligence and empathy in association with personality disorder trait-scores: exploring the link
Hengartner, M. P., Ajdacic‐Gross, V., Rodgers, S., Müller, M., Haker, H., & Wulf Rössler, A. (2013) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-013-0441-0 · Cited by 32
“Fluid intelligence and empathy are thus evolutionary evolved adaptive traits [45, 46] that are highly relevant for the social functioning and adaptation of modern humans [47–49].”
Background
Deciphering the modulatory role of oxytocin in human altruism
Hurlemann, R., & Marsh, N. (2017) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2016-0061 · Cited by 31
Physical coldness enhances racial in-group bias in empathy: Electrophysiological evidence
Luo, S., Han, X., Du, N., & Han, S. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.05.002 · Cited by 31
“Because empathy has been supposed to be a proximate mechanism of prosocial behavior (Batson et al., 1987; De Waal, 2008; Batson, 2011; Decety et al., 2016) and empathic neural responses can predict altruistic behavior (Hein et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2011), one may hypothesize that an inclement…”

Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

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