Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

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Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

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Background
Long-term consistency in chimpanzee consolation behaviour reflects empathetic personalities
Webb, C. E., Romero, T., Franks, B., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-017-00360-7 · Cited by 43
After the Honeymoon: Neural and Genetic Correlates of Romantic Love in Newlywed Marriages
Acevedo, B. P., Poulin, M. J., Collins, N. L., & Brown, L. L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00634 · Cited by 46
“In recent decades ideas about their function have expanded to include companionship, care, and evolutionary fitness (de Waal, 2008; Batson, 2011; Raghanti et al., 2018).”
Background
The Influence of Game Character Appearance on Empathy and Immersion: Virtual Non-Robotic Versus Robotic Animals
Rátiva, A. S., Postma, M., & van Zaanen, M. M. (2020) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878120926694 · Cited by 49
Chimpanzees behave prosocially in a group-specific manner
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., DeTroy, S. E., Kaufhold, S. P., Dubois, C., Schütte, S., Call, J., & Haun, D. B. M. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abc7982 · Cited by 48
Oxytocin increases attention to the eyes and selectively enhances self-reported affective empathy for fear
Hubble, K., Daughters, K., Manstead, A. S. R., Rees, A., Thapar, A., & van Goozen, S. H. M. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.019 · Cited by 41
Dark and Bright Empathy
Throop, J., & Zahavi, D. (2020) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/708844 · Cited by 42
Neuronal correlates of asocial behavior in a BTBR T+Itpr3tf/J mouse model of autism
Meyza, K. Z., Nikolaev, T., Kondrakiewicz, K., Blanchard, D. C., Blanchard, R. J., & Knapska, E. (2015) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00199 · Cited by 45
“In its simplest form it is characterized as a capacity to be affected by and/or to share the emotional state of another being, a phenomenon also known as emotional contagion (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Physiological resonance between mates through calls as possible evidence of empathic processes in songbirds
Perez, E. C., Elie, J. E., Boucaud, I. C. A., Crouchet, T., Soulage, C. O., Soula, H. A., Theunissen, F. E., & Vignal, C. (2015) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.09.002 · Cited by 42
“State matching also known as emotional contagion - where the affective state of the subject generates the same affect in the perceiver - is well described in human behaviour (De Waal, 2008; De Waal and Ferrari, 2010; Hatfield & Cacioppo, 1994; Preston and De Waal, 2002).”
She more than he : gender bias supports the empathic nature of yawn contagion in Homo sapiens
Norscia, I., Demuru, E., & Palagi, E. (2016) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.150459 · Cited by 42
The Effect of Oxytocin on Third-Party Altruistic Decisions in Unfair Situations: An fMRI Study
Hu, Y., Scheele, D., Becker, B., Voos, G., David, B., Hurlemann, R., & Weber, B. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep20236 · Cited by 44
Hope and post-stress growth during COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating role of perceived stress and the moderating role of empathy
Hu, Y., Ye, B., & Im, H. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110831 · Cited by 42
“Such responses and expression of positive zeal may assist individuals to better cope with stressful events that subsequently promotes the development of PSG. Empathy composes of different levels (de Waal, 2008); at the core is emotional sharing and at the outermost layer is cognitive regulation.”
The Development and Evaluation of Mutual Support Groups in Long-Term Care Homes
Theurer, K. A., Wister, A., Sixsmith, A. J., Chaudhury, H., & Lovegreen, L. D. (2012) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/0733464812446866 · Cited by 46
Could empathy for animals have been an adaptation in the evolution of Homo sapiens?
Bradshaw, J., & Paul, E. (2010) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s096272860000230x · Cited by 42
“The emotional component of empathy involves the tendency to match one’s emotions to those observed in another, either as a result of associative learning or more specific action-perception mechanisms Universities Federation for Animal Welfare Science in the Service of Animal Welfare (de Waal 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential
Empathic emotion regulation in prosocial behaviour and altruism
Brethel-Haurwitz, K. M., Stoianova, M., & Marsh, A. A. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1783517 · Cited by 47
“Altruistic kidney donation is a voluntary and extremely costly form of altruism that bene ﬁ ts a stranger, thereby meeting the most stringent de ﬁ nitions of human altruism (Batson, 2010; Clavien & Chapuisat, 2013; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Does Police Repression Spur Everyday Cooperation? Evidence from Urban India
Thachil, T. (2020) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/708643 · Cited by 41
The Role of Guilt and Empathy on Prosocial Behavior
Abbate, C. S., Misuraca, R., Roccella, M., Parisi, L., Vetri, L., & Miceli, S. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12030064 · Cited by 60
The role of perspective-taking on empowering the empathetic behavior of educators in VR-based training sessions: An experimental evaluation
Stavroulia, K. E., & Lanitis, A. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104739 · Cited by 50
Timmy’s in the well: Empathy and prosocial helping in dogs
Sanford, E. M., Burt, E. R., & Meyers-Manor, J. E. (2018) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-018-0332-3 · Cited by 41
Reduced empathic pain processing in patients with somatoform pain disorder: Evidence from behavioral and neurophysiological measures
Peng, W., Meng, J., Lou, Y., Li, X., Lei, Y., & Yan, D. (2019) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.03.004 · Cited by 43
Mobile use induces local attentional precedence and is associated with limited socio-cognitive skills in preschoolers
Konok, V., Liszkai-Peres, K., Bunford, N., Ferdinandy, B., Jurányi, Z., Ujfalussy, D. J., Réti, Z., Pogány, Á., Kampis, G., & Miklósi, Á. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106758 · Cited by 60
Environmental education, age, race, and socioeconomic class: An exploration of differential impacts of field trips on adolescent youth in the United States
Stern, M. J., Powell, R. B., & Frensley, B. T. (2021) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2021.1990865 · Cited by 41
Empathy and Prosocial Behavior
Vaish, A. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21816-6 · Cited by 41
Meditation Effects in the Social Domain: Self-Other Connectedness as a General Mechanism?
Trautwein, F.-M., Naranjo, J. R., & Schmidt, S. (2014) · Studies in Neuroscience, Consciousness and Spirituality · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01634-4_10 · Cited by 45
Inductive modeling using causal studies in neuroeconomics: brains on drugs
Vercoe, M., & Zak, P. J. (2010) · Journal of Economic Methodology · doi:10.1080/13501781003756675 · Cited by 40
Mirror neurons and empathy-related regions in psychopathy: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and a working model
Penagos-Corzo, J. C., van Hasselt, M. C., Escobar-Magariño, D., Vázquez‐Roque, R. A., & Flores, G. (2022) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2022.2128868 · Cited by 52
“The former is primarily associated with emotional contagion and the latter with perspective taking (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists
Rhoads, S. A., Vekaria, K. M., O’Connell, K., Elizabeth, H. S., Rand, D. G., Williams, M. K., & Marsh, A. A. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5 · Cited by 49

Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

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