Cited by 2,483Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorEvolutionary Game Theory and CooperationChild and Animal Learning Development

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 182 of the 183 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

de Waal, Frans B.M.·2008·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625

Cites

182 of 182 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 · Cited by 15,725
The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism
Trivers, R. L. (1971) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/406755 · Cited by 11,010
Untitled work
(1994) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 10,542
Untitled work
(1976) · Cited by 10,423
DESCARTES' ERROR: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain
Marg, E. (1995) · Optometry and Vision Science · doi:10.1002/j.1538-9235.1995.tb03988.x · Cited by 8,178
On aims and methods of ethology
Tinbergen, N. (1963) · Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x · Cited by 4,551
Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions
Panksepp, J. (1998) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195096736.001.0001 · Cited by 4,428
Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases
Preston, S. D., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x02000018 · Cited by 4,126
Untitled work
(1998) · Cited by 4,012
Empathy for Pain Involves the Affective but not Sensory Components of Pain
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1093535 · Cited by 3,929

Show all 183 references

Research works printed but not linked: 20

Bischof-Köhler D, 1988, Schw. Z. Psychol., 47, 147
Bowlby J, 1958, Int. J. Psychoanal., 39, 350
10.1037//0012-1649.33.5.781 · DOI · Paper page
de Waal FBM, 1997, Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape.
de Waal FBM, 2003, Feelings & Emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium, 379
de Waal FBM, 2005, Our Inner Ape.
Dindo M, 2006, Am. J. Primatol., 69, 1
Eisenberg N, 2000, Handbook of Emotion, 677
Flack JC, 2000, J. Consc. Stud., 7, 67
Johnson DB, 1992, Merrill-Palmer Q. Behav. Dev., 28, 379
Joubert D, 1991, Natl. Geogr., 179, 39
Kagan J, 2000, J. Consc. Stud., 7, 46
Lipps T, 1903, Arch. für die gesamte Psychol., 1, 465
Menzel EW, 1974, Behavior of Non-human Primates, Vol. 5, 83
Parr LA., 2001, Pan troglodytes, 4, 223
Payne K, 1998, Silent Thunder: In the Presence of Elephants
Povinelli DJ, 1998, Sci. Am.
Watts DP, 2000, Natural Conflict Resolution, 281
Wrangham RW, 1996, Demonic Males: Apes and the Evolution of Human Aggression.
10.1037//0012-1649.28.1.126 · DOI · Paper page

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 1,005

Using tDCS to Explore the Role of the Right Temporo-Parietal Junction in Theory of Mind and Cognitive Empathy
Mai, X., Zhang, W., Hu, X., Zhen, Z., Xu, Z., Zhang, J., & Liu, C. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00380 · Cited by 99
“Cognitive empathy emphasizes inferring other’s affective mental state (“I understand what you feel”) but not necessarily sharing this feeling (de Waal, 2008).”
Background
The comparative study of empathy: sympathetic concern and empathic perspective‐taking in non‐human animals
Pérez‐Manrique, A., & Gomila, A. (2017) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12342 · Cited by 101
Cultural and societal influences on shared leadership in globally dispersed teams
Muethel, M., & Hoegl, M. (2010) · Journal of International Management · doi:10.1016/j.intman.2010.06.003 · Cited by 97
Reciprocal cooperation between unrelated rats depends on cost to donor and benefit to recipient
Schneeberger, K., Dietz, M., & Michael Taborsky, A. (2012) · BMC Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-41 · Cited by 95
The Dark Side of Empathy: Mimesis, Deception, and the Magic of Alterity
Bubandt, N., & Willerslev, R. (2015) · Comparative Studies in Society and History · doi:10.1017/s0010417514000589 · Cited by 141
Comparison of Cognitive Empathy, Emotional Empathy, and Social Functioning in Different Age Groups
Khanjani, Z., Jeddi, E., Hekmati, I., Khalilzade, S., Nia, M. E., Andalib, M., & Ashrafian, P. (2015) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12099 · Cited by 92
Selective impairment of cognitive empathy for moral judgment in adults with high functioning autism
Gleichgerrcht, E. L., Torralva, T., Rattazzi, A., Marenco, V., Roca, M., & Manes, F. F. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss067 · Cited by 96
Emotional contagion in nonhuman animals: A review
Pérez‐Manrique, A., & Gomila, A. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1560 · Cited by 99
Humanism as a common factor in psychotherapy.
Wampold, B. E. (2012) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0027113 · Cited by 97
“The empathic stance of the therapist facilitates the emotional connection and increases the likelihood of influence (Benedetti, 2011; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Using Moral Foundations to Predict Voting Behavior: Regression Models from the 2012 U.S. Presidential Election
Franks, A. S., & Scherr, K. C. (2015) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12074 · Cited by 103
Emotional Transfer in Human–Horse Interaction: New Perspectives on Equine Assisted Interventions
Scopa, C., Contalbrigo, L., Greco, A., Lanatà, A., Scilingo, E. P., & Baragli, P. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9121030 · Cited by 114
“Emotional contagion occurs when the perception of emotion expression induces the same emotion in the receiver as in the producer of the signal and this mechanism is considered the basis of empathy [100,101].”
Background
Psychology of personal data donation
Skatova, A., & Goulding, J. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224240 · Cited by 98
Gender differences in empathy, compassion, and prosocial donations, but not theory of mind in a naturalistic social task
McDonald, B., & Kanske, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-47747-9 · Cited by 117
“These findings provide support for the empathy-altruism hypothesis 53,54 and further underline the separable nature of social affective and social cognitive processes 5 .”
Result
Postconflict third-party affiliation in Canis lupus: do wolves share similarities with the great apes?
Palagi, E., & Cordoni, G. (2009) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.07.017 · Cited by 89
“Several researchers have interpreted such differences in the light of the high cognitive abilities and empathy levels that characterize great apes and humans (de Waal 2008; Fraser et al. 2008).”
Background
Chimpanzee social intelligence: selfishness, altruism, and the mother–infant bond
Hirata, S. (2009) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-008-0122-1 · Cited by 88
Neuroanatomical basis of concern-based altruism in virtual environment
Patil, I., Zanon, M., Novembre, G., Zangrando, N., Chittaro, L., & Silani, G. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.02.015 · Cited by 89
“Prosocial behavior is any behavior that benefits others, while altruistic behavior is a subset of prosocial behaviors that improves welfare of the recipient and comes at a cost to the altruist (Batson, 2011; de Waal, 2008).”
Background
Humanistic Management: Protecting Dignity and Promoting Well-Being
Pirson, M. A. (2017) · Cited by 88
Bonobos ( Pan paniscus ) show an attentional bias toward conspecifics’ emotions
Kret, M. E., Jaasma, L., Bionda, T., & Wijnen, J. G. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1522060113 · Cited by 94
Cognitive bias in rats evoked by ultrasonic vocalizations suggests emotional contagion
Saito, Y., Yuki, S., Seki, Y., Kagawa, H., & Okanoya, K. (2016) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2016.08.005 · Cited by 84
The influence of oxytocin administration on responses to infant faces and potential moderation by OXTR genotype
Marsh, A. A., Yu, H. H., Pine, D. S., Gorodetsky, E. K., Goldman, D., & Blair, R. J. R. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2775-0 · Cited by 87
A Comparison of Empathy for Humans and Empathy for Animals
Angantyr, M., Eklund, J. H., & Hansen, E. M. (2011) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.2752/175303711x13159027359764 · Cited by 92
Evolutionary precursors of social norms in chimpanzees: a new approach
von Rohr, C. R., Burkart, J. M., & van Schaik, C. P. (2010) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-010-9240-4 · Cited by 90
The dark side of empathy: Meta‐analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression
Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.482 · Cited by 102
Neural responses to perceived pain in others predict real-life monetary donations in different socioeconomic contexts
Ma, Y., Wang, C., & Han, S. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.05.003 · Cited by 91
Is a sense of inequity an ancestral primate trait? Testing social inequity in cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus).
Neiworth, J. J., Johnson, E. T., Whillock, K. M., Greenberg, J. R., & Brown, V. (2009) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012662 · Cited by 86
Helping Strangers Is Lower in Embedded Cultures
Knafo‐Noam, A., Schwartz, S. H., & Levine, R. V. (2009) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022109339211 · Cited by 93
The Montagu Principle: Incivility decreases politicians’ public approval, even with their political base.
Frimer, J. A., & Skitka, L. J. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000140 · Cited by 93
“Harming others violates a widely shared deontological principle to not cause others to suffer (Bowlby, 1969; de Waal, 2008; Graham, Haidt, & Nosek, 2009; Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001).”
Background
Selfish or selfless? The role of empathy in economics
Kirman, A. P., & Teschl, M. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0192 · Cited by 89
Are there sex differences in ERPs related to processing empathy-evoking pictures?
Groen, Y., Wijers, A. A., Tucha, O. M., & Althaus, M. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.11.012 · Cited by 86
Is Empathy the Default Response to Suffering? A Meta-Analytic Evaluation of Perspective Taking’s Effect on Empathic Concern
McAuliffe, W. H. B., Carter, E. C., Berhane, J., Snihur, A., & McCullough, M. E. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868319887599 · Cited by 92
“First, authors who posit that certain components of empathic responding are engaged automatically (de Waal, 2008; Drayton, Santos, & Baskin-Sommers, 2018) would argue that “imagine” instructions are redundant because perceiving the suffering of others induces congruent emotions without any…”
Background
Challenges in the comparative study of empathy and related phenomena in animals
Adriaense, J. E. C., Koski, S. E., Huber, L., & Lamm, C. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.021 · Cited by 98
Heart rate modulation in bystanding geese watching social and non-social events
Wascher, C. A. F., Scheiber, I. B. R., & Kotrschal, K. M. (2008) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0146 · Cited by 89
Effort shapes social cognition and behaviour: A neuro-cognitive framework
Contreras-Huerta, L. S., Pisauro, M. A., & Apps, M. A. J. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.08.003 · Cited by 91
The Integrated Role of Personal Values and Theory of Planned Behavior to Form a Sustainable Entrepreneurial Intention
Yasir, N., Mahmood, N., Mehmood, H. S., Rashid, O. T., & Li-ren, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13169249 · Cited by 97
Empathy in Early Childhood
Knafo‐Noam, A., Zahn‐Waxler, C., Davidov, M., Hulle, C. V., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2009) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04540.x · Cited by 83
Moderate baseline vagal tone predicts greater prosociality in children.
Miller, J. G., Kahle, S. S., & Hastings, P. D. (2016) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000238 · Cited by 94
The role of personal values in children’s costly sharing and non-costly giving
Abramson, L., Daniel, E., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.03.007 · Cited by 103
A Comparative Perspective on the Evolution of Moral Behavior
Hall, K., & Brosnan, S. F. (2015) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19671-8_8 · Cited by 83
When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior
Carlson, R. W., Aknin, L. B., & Mario Liotti, A. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv077 · Cited by 86
Whale and dolphin behavioural responses to dead conspecifics
Bearzi, G., Kerem, D. H., Furey, N. B., Pitman, R. L., Rendell, L. E., & Reeves, R. R. (2018) · Zoology · doi:10.1016/j.zool.2018.05.003 · Cited by 82
“…the diversity of responses to dead conspecifics, elucidate the adaptive value of such responses, and perhaps initiate a debate over whether epimeletic responses can be framed in the larger context of emotional and mental sensitivity to another's state (de Waal, 2008; de Waal and Preston, 2017).”
Background
From Interest to Obligation: The Gradual Development of Human Altruism
Dahl, A., & Paulus, M. (2018) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12298 · Cited by 81
“The ontogeny of empathic helping could be based on perception-action links between others’ expressions of emotions that could trigger an equivalent emotional state in the observer (de Waal, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential
Empathy and Fairness: Psychological Mechanisms for Eliciting and Maintaining Prosociality and Cooperation in Primates
Yamamoto, S., & Takimoto, A. (2012) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-012-0160-0 · Cited by 81
Resilient Communities
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079 · Cited by 202
Right frontal cortical asymmetry predicts empathic reactions: Support for a link between withdrawal motivation and empathy
Tullett, A. M., Harmon‐Jones, E., & Inzlicht, M. (2012) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01395.x · Cited by 86
“From an evolutionary perspective, empathy is often touted as an adaptive capacity in that it contributes to helping behavior, which in turn contributes to inclusive fitness (Batson, Lishner, Cook, & Sawyer, 2005; de Waal, 2008; Eisenberg & Miller, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Influence of the natural setting on environmental education outcomes
Dale, R. G., Powell, R. B., Stern, M. J., & Garst, B. A. (2020) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2020.1738346 · Cited by 80
“…too much novelty in field trip experiences may distract students from learning, research has shown that novel experiences can inspire curiosity, learning, and collaborative and collective action (DeWitt and Storksdieck 2008; de Waal 2008; Keltner et al. 2014; Orion 1989; Sober and Wilson 1998).”
Background
Cognitive and emotional empathy in typically developing children: The influence of age, gender, and intelligence
Schwenck, C., Göhle, B., Hauf, J. E. K., Warnke, A., Freitag, C. M., & Schneider, W. (2013) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2013.808994 · Cited by 83
Why are bystanders friendly to recipients of aggression?
Fraser, O. N., Koski, S. E., Wittig, R. M., & Aureli, F. (2009) · Communicative & Integrative Biology · doi:10.4161/cib.2.3.8718 · Cited by 80
Parochialism in preschool boys' resource allocation
Benozio, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.12.002 · Cited by 87
Does mindfulness meditation increase empathy? An experiment
Ridderinkhof, A., de Bruin, E. I., Brummelman, E., & Bögels, S. M. (2017) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1269667 · Cited by 87
Exploring the evolutionary foundations of empathy: consolation in monkeys
Palagi, E., Dall’Olio, S., Demuru, E., & Stanyon, R. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.04.002 · Cited by 79
A Missense Variant at the Nrxn3 Locus Enhances Empathy Fear in the Mouse
Keum, S., Kim, A., Shin, J. J., Kim, J., Park, J., & Shin, H. (2018) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.03.041 · Cited by 79
Emotional Empathy and Facial Mimicry for Static and Dynamic Facial Expressions of Fear and Disgust
Rymarczyk, K., Żurawski, Ł., Jankowiak-Siuda, K., & Szatkowska, I. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01853 · Cited by 89
Young infants expect an unfamiliar adult to comfort a crying baby: Evidence from a standard violation-of-expectation task and a novel infant-triggered-video task
Jin, K., Houston, J. L., Renée Baillargeon, B., Groh, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2018) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2017.12.004 · Cited by 86
Male Yawning Is More Contagious than Female Yawning among Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Massen, J. J. M., Vermunt, D. A., & Sterck, E. H. M. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040697 · Cited by 78
A multimodal theory of affect diffusion.
Peters, K., & Kashima, Y. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000020 · Cited by 85
Effects of compassion meditation on a psychological model of charitable donation.
Ashar, Y. K., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Yarkoni, T., Sills, J., Halifax, J., Dimidjian, S., & Wager, T. D. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000119 · Cited by 78
Empathy networks in the parental brain and their long-term effects on children's stress reactivity and behavior adaptation
Abraham, E., Raz, G., Zagoory‐Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.015 · Cited by 82
“Evolutionary models suggest that the capacity for empathy evolved within the mammalian parent-offspring bond to provide care that exceeds feeding and includes nurturing and comfort, thus maximizing offspring survival and reproduction (MacLean, 1985; De Waal, 2008; Gonzalez-Liencres et al., 2013).”
The effects of dissociation on willingness to eat meat are moderated by exposure to unprocessed meat: A cross-cultural demonstration
Kunst, J. R., & Haugestad, C. A. P. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.09.016 · Cited by 77
Evoking Physiological Synchrony and Empathy Using Social VR With Biofeedback
Salminen, M., Järvelä, S., Ruonala, A., Harjunen, V. J., Hamari, J., Jacucci, G., & Ravaja, N. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2019.2958657 · Cited by 83
Out of touch with reality? Social perception in first-episode schizophrenia
Ebisch, S. J. H., Salone, A., Ferri, F., De Berardis, D., Romani, G. L., Ferro, F. M., & Gallese, V. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss012 · Cited by 77
“de Waal, F.B. (2008). Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy.”
Background
Task modulations of racial bias in neural responses to others' suffering
Feng, S., Liu, Q., Li, H., Fang, F., & Han, S. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.10.017 · Cited by 77
Grandparental childcare, health and well-being in Europe: A within-individual investigation of longitudinal data
Danielsbacka, M., Tanskanen, A. O., Coall, D. A., & Jokela, M. M. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.031 · Cited by 76
“This function is not necessarily targeted at the grandparent's own direct health and survival; however, the possible well-being benefits may be a by-product (Buss, 2000; De Waal, 2008; Euler, 2011).”
Background
Reciprocal cortico-amygdala connections regulate prosocial and selfish choices in mice
Scheggia, D., Greca, F. L., Maltese, F., Chiacchierini, G., Italia, M., Molent, C., Bernardi, F., Coccia, G., Carrano, N., Zianni, E., et al. (2022) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-022-01179-2 · Cited by 76
A Longitudinal Study of the Associations Between Moral Disengagement and Active Defending Versus Passive Bystanding During Bullying Situations
Doramajian, & Bukowski (2015) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.61.1.0144 · Cited by 85
Monkeys benefit from reciprocity without the cognitive burden
Suchak, M., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1213173109 · Cited by 76
Deontic Justice and Organizational Neuroscience
Cropanzano, R., Massaro, S., & Becker, W. J. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3056-3 · Cited by 80
Chimpanzees Show a Developmental Increase in Susceptibility to Contagious Yawning: A Test of the Effect of Ontogeny and Emotional Closeness on Yawn Contagion
Madsen, E. A., Persson, T., Sayehli, S., Lenninger, S., & Sonesson, G. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076266 · Cited by 78
Elephants know when their bodies are obstacles to success in a novel transfer task
Dale, R., & Plotnik, J. M. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep46309 · Cited by 78
The effects of risk message frames on post-pandemic travel intentions: the moderation of empathy and perceived waiting time
Xie, C., Zhang, J., Morrison, A. M., & Coca‐Stefaniak, J. A. (2021) · Current Issues in Tourism · doi:10.1080/13683500.2021.1881052 · Cited by 76
“According to the ‘Russian Doll Model’ proposed by de Waal (2008), empathy is a multidimensional construct comprising cognitive regulation and emotional experiences.”
Prosocial and Aggressive Behavior: A Longitudinal Study
Hay, D. F., Paine, A. L., Perra, O., Cook, K. V., Hashmi, S., Robinson, C., Kairis, V., & Slade, R. (2021) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12427 · Cited by 102
A Better Ape
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.001.0001 · Cited by 79
Early Sympathy and Social Acceptance Predict the Development of Sharing in Children
Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., Chaparro, M. P., & Buchmann, M. C. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052017 · Cited by 86
Contagious yawning in domestic dog puppies (Canis lupus familiaris): the effect of ontogeny and emotional closeness on low-level imitation in dogs
Madsen, E. A., & Persson, T. (2012) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-012-0568-9 · Cited by 75
Emotional contagion of distress in young pigs is potentiated by previous exposure to the same stressor
Goumon, S., & Špinka, M. (2016) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-015-0950-5 · Cited by 78
Empathy and Self-Recognition in Phylogenetic and Ontogenetic Perspective
Bischof-Köhler, D. (2012) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073911421377 · Cited by 76
Pupil-mimicry conditions trust in partners: moderation by oxytocin and group membership
Kret, M. E., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.2554 · Cited by 75
A pluralistic framework for the psychology of norms
Westra, E., & Andrews, K. (2022) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-022-09871-0 · Cited by 82
“…this fuzziness has not prevented moral psychologists from making important advances in specific kinds of morally relevant thinking – such as empathy (de Waal 2008), character (Miller 2014), self-control (Sripada 2020), and the concept of the moral self (Strohminger and Nichols 2014) – it is no…”
Background
From Hominoid to Hominid Mind: What Changed and Why?
Hare, B. A. (2010) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-081309-145726 · Cited by 74
“Researchers currently hypothesize that these domains of theory of mind are major derived features of human cognitive evolution (Tomasello et al. 2005, Hare 2007, Call & Tomasello 2008; see also debates regarding empathy in chimpanzees: Preston & de Waal 2002, de Waal 2008, Silk 2008).”
Background
The differential contribution of facial expressions, prosody, and speech content to empathy
Regenbogen, C., Schneider, D. A., Finkelmeyer, A. E., Kohn, N., Derntl, B., Kellermann, T., Gur, R. E., Schneider, F. W., & Habel, U. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.631296 · Cited by 81
Reading wild minds: A computational assay of Theory of Mind sophistication across seven primate species
Devaine, M., San‐Galli, A., Trapanese, C., Bardino, G., Hano, C., Jalme, M. S., Bouret, S., Masi, S., & Jean Daunizeau, A. (2017) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005833 · Cited by 82
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) consolation: Third-party identity as a window on possible function.
Romero, T., & de Waal, F. Β. Μ. (2010) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019144 · Cited by 77
“…124, No. 3, 278–286 0735-7036/10/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0019144 278 concern,” an expression of empathy (e.g., Eisenberg, 2000; ZahnWaxler & Radke-Yarrow, 1990; Zahn-Waxler, Hollenbeck, & Radke-Yarrow, 1984) that may be present in apes (e.g., de Waal, 2008; Preston & de Waal, 2002) but not in monkeys.”
BackgroundInfluential
A lifespan perspective on attachment and care for others: Empathy, altruism, and prosocial behavior
Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., & Cassidy, J. A. (2016) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · Cited by 73
Helping in young children and chimpanzees shows partiality towards friends
Engelmann, J. M., Haux, L. M., & Herrmann, E. (2019) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.01.003 · Cited by 73
“…has contributed to our understanding of the phylogenetic origins of human cooperative skills by demonstrating that our closest primate relatives are able to form, maintain and repair long-term cooperative relationships with kin and non kin alike (de Waal, 2008; Melis, 2017; Muller & Mitani, 2005).”
Background
Moral Burden of Bottom-Line Pursuits: How and When Perceptions of Top Management Bottom-Line Mentality Inhibit Supervisors’ Ethical Leadership Practices
Greenbaum, R. L., Babalola, M. T., Quade, M. J., Guo, L., & Kim, Y. C. (2020) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-020-04546-w · Cited by 80
Cognition and the human–animal relationship: a review of the sociocognitive skills of domestic mammals toward humans
Jardat, P., & Lansade, L. (2021) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-021-01557-6 · Cited by 72
Motivating individuals for social transition: The 2-pathway model and experiential strategies for pro-environmental behaviour
Thiermann, U. B., & Sheate, W. R. (2020) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106668 · Cited by 89
Effect of Different Types of Empathy on Prosocial Behavior: Gratitude as Mediator
Pang, Y., Song, C., & Ma, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.768827 · Cited by 103
“In other words, when an individual’s empathy is activated, it is easy to perceive and experience the efforts and losses of others (De Waal, 2008), which will further stimulate the individual’s gratitude, thinking that the motivation behind the prosocial behavior is entirely altruistic (McCullough…”
Background
Responding Empathically: A Question of Heart, not a Question of Skin
Oliveira‐Silva, P., & Gonçalves, Ó. F. (2011) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-011-9161-2 · Cited by 72
“De Waal (2008) claims that these two components refer to different evolutionary stages.”
Background
A disconnection account of subjective empathy impairments in diffuse low-grade glioma patients
Herbet, G., Lafargue, G., Moritz‐Gasser, S., de Champfleur, N. M., Costi, E., Bonnetblanc, F., & Duffau, H. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.015 · Cited by 73
“In current theoretical models, at least two forms of empathy are described: (i) the emotional and (ii) the cognitive component of empathy (Davis, 1983; De Waal, 2008; Rameson and Lieberman, 2007; Decety and Moriguchi, 2007; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009; Shamay-Tsoory, 2011).”
Multimodal human communication — Targeting facial expressions, speech content and prosody
Regenbogen, C., Schneider, D. A., Gur, R. E., Schneider, F. W., Habel, U., & Kellermann, T. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.043 · Cited by 71
Fair play and its connection with social tolerance, reciprocity and the ethology of peace
Palagi, E., Cordoni, G., Demuru, E., & Bekoff, M. (2016) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003336 · Cited by 76
The development of mirror self-recognition in different sociocultural contexts.
Kärtner, J., Keller, H., Chaudhary, N., & Yovsi, R. D. (2012) · PubMed · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2012.00688.x · Cited by 70
Biological and social challenges of human reproduction in a long-term Mars base
Szocik, K., Marques, R. E., Abood, S., Kędzior, A., Lysenko-Ryba, K., & Minich, D. (2018) · Futures · doi:10.1016/j.futures.2018.04.006 · Cited by 75
Property Damage and Exposure to Other People in Distress Differentially Predict Prosocial Behavior After a Natural Disaster
Vardy, T., & Atkinson, Q. D. (2019) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619826972 · Cited by 79
“For example, witnessing suffering in other people can invoke empathic concern for their well-being (Batson, 2010; de Waal, 2008), and shared painful experiences can facilitate a feeling of emotional closeness (Korchmaros & Kenny, 2001).”
Background
Self‐recognition in the Asian elephant and future directions for cognitive research with elephants in zoological settings
Plotnik, J. M., de Waal, F. Β. Μ., Moore, D., & Reiss, D. (2009) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20257 · Cited by 74
Emotions on the loose: emotional contagion and the role of oxytocin in pigs
Reimert, I., Bolhuis, J. E., Kemp, B., & Rodenburg, T. B. (2014) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0820-6 · Cited by 71
Measuring empathic responses in animals
Edgar, J. L., Nicol, C. J., Clark, C. C. A., & Paul, E. S. (2012) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2012.02.006 · Cited by 80
Morality, Ethics, and Gifted Minds
Cross, T. L., & Ambrose, D. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89368-6 · Cited by 77
Geographical differences in subjective well-being predict extraordinary altruism
Brethel-Haurwitz, K. M., & Marsh, A. A. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613516148 · Cited by 67
Do we mimic what we see or what we know?
Heß, U., Houde, S., & Fischer, A. H. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199659180.003.0007 · Cited by 69

Authors: de Waal, F. B. M.
Affiliations: Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2008-01-01
Volume: 59
Issue: 1
Pages: 279-300
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
OpenAlex: W2134084792
Cited by: 2,483
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
FWCI: 8.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
MeSH terms: Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks