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Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy
Abstract
Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.
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“the phenomenon reported here is direct evidence of what de Waal argued to be the most elementary component of empathy: “that one party is affected by another’s emotional or arousal state (p. 282).”43”
From Insular cortex mediates approach and avoidance responses to social affective stimuli (2018) · cites this paper as [43]
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“Although consolation may be expected to be reciprocated or exchanged for other valuable services (31), no study has investigated correlations between given and received consolation.”
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Janoff‐Bulman, R., & Carnes, N. C. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313480274 · Cited by 287
“…reciprocity).4 Recently, however, we have begun to witness a sea-change, with altruism acknowledged as a true and fundamental side of human nature (see, for example, Batson, 1998; Bowles, 2006; Boyd, 2006; de Waal, 2008; Keltner, 2009; Nowak & Highfield, 2011; Sober & Wilson, 1998; Wilson, 2012).”
BackgroundThe role of shared neural activations, mirror neurons, and morality in empathy – A critical comment
Lamm, C., & Majdandžić, J. (2015) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2014.10.008 · Cited by 252
Jonason, P. K., Lyons, M. T., Bethell, E., & Ross, R. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.009 · Cited by 242
Chapter 2 Reciprocal Altruism in Primates
(2009) · Advances in the Study of Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-3454(09)39002-6 · Cited by 240
“I feel your pain”: A critical review of organizational research on empathy
Clark, M. A., Robertson, M. M., & Young, S. F. (2018) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2348 · Cited by 273
I'm Moral, but I Won't Help You: The Distinct Roles of Empathy and Justice in Donations
Lee, S., Winterich, K. P., & Ross, W. T. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/677226 · Cited by 236
Meeks, T. W., & Jeste, D. V. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.8 · Cited by 234
Singh, N. M. (2013) · Geoforum · doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.01.010 · Cited by 233
Mitigating Psychological Reactance: The Role of Message-Induced Empathy in Persuasion
Shen, L. (2010) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01381.x · Cited by 235
Empathic Care and Distress: Predictive Brain Markers and Dissociable Brain Systems
Ashar, Y. K., Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., Dimidjian, S., & Wager, T. D. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.05.014 · Cited by 244
“Distinctions among multiple systems are central to recent conceptualizations of empathy and compassion (Ashar et al., 2016a; de Waal, 2008; Kanske et al., 2016; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009; Singer and Klimecki, 2014; Zaki and Ochsner, 2012).”
BackgroundContagious yawning in gelada baboons as a possible expression of empathy
Palagi, E., Leone, A., Mancini, G., & Ferrari, P. F. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0910891106 · Cited by 240
Rodent empathy and affective neuroscience
Panksepp, J. B., & Lahvis, G. P. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.013 · Cited by 224
“Prompted in part by the research and writings of primatologist Franz de Waal, more principled and evolutionary based perspectives on empathy have emerged (de Waal, 2008).”
BackgroundRats demonstrate helping behavior toward a soaked conspecific
Sato, N., Tan, L., Tate, K., & Okada, M. (2015) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-015-0872-2 · Cited by 224
Storied-places in a multispecies city
Van Dooren, T., & Rose, D. B. (2012) · Humanimalia · doi:10.52537/humanimalia.10046 · Cited by 224
Metadata
- Authors
- de Waal, F. B. M.
- Affiliations
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2008-01-01
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 279-300
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2134084792
- Cited by
- 2,483
- References
- 183
- Citations by year
- 2026: 131 · 2025: 138 · 2024: 165 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 176 · 2021: 191 · 2020: 139 · 2019: 216 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 165 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 154 · 2014: 127 · 2013: 103 · 2012: 87
- FWCI
- 8.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- empathy, altruism, evolution of empathy, perspective taking, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, emotional contagion, evolutionary psychology of emotion
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Biological Evolution, Humans, Social Behavior, Intention
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