The DOI matches its Crossref record; 27 of the 27 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 35 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School
Abstract
In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between white and black students persists, even after controlling for a wide range of observable characteristics. Using a newly available data set (the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study), we demonstrate that in stark contrast to earlier studies, the black-white test score gap among incoming kindergartners disappears when we control for a small number of covariates. Real gains by black children in recent cohorts appear to play an important role in explaining the differences between our findings and earlier research. The availability of better covariates also contributes. Over the first two years of school, however, blacks lose substantial ground relative to other races. There is suggestive evidence that differences in school quality may be an important part of the explanation. None of the other hypotheses we test to explain why blacks are losing ground receive any empirical backing.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using ECLS-K data on children entering kindergarten in 1998, Fryer and Levitt find that the raw Black-White test-score gap in math and reading is essentially eliminated by a small set of observable controls, but Black students lose substantial ground relative to Whites over the first two years of school. The only explanation receiving empirical support is that Black students attend worse schools on average, though the authors characterize this evidence as suggestive rather than definitive.
Key findings
- In fall kindergarten, the raw Black-White gap is .638 SD in math and .401 SD in reading; with the parsimonious controls (age, birth weight, SES, WIC, mother’s age at first birth, number of children’s books), the estimated gap becomes -.094 SD in math and .117 SD in reading, essentially eliminating the gap.
- Between fall kindergarten and spring first grade, Black students lose ground relative to Whites: raw losses are .090 SD in math and .128 SD in reading; with controls, losses are .156 SD in math and .188 SD in reading.
- When school fixed effects are included, the Black-White gap lost over time shrinks to less than one-third of the full-sample estimate and is not statistically different from zero: math difference -.047 (.052), reading difference -.05 (.057).
- Other tested explanations receive little support: Black students do not suffer larger summer setbacks, teacher assessments mirror test-score patterns, having a Black teacher does not benefit Black students, and adding behavioral proxies does not alter findings.
Methods
- Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998; the analysis sample with nonmissing test scores, race, or age is 13,290 for math and 12,601 for reading.
- Outcomes: IRT math and reading test scores, normalized to mean zero and SD one, plus subjective teacher assessments; main specifications use weighted least squares with sample weights.
- Design: Regressions of test scores on race dummies and a parsimonious set of controls, with extensions using an exhaustive set of roughly 100 covariates, school fixed effects, teacher fixed effects, and subsample/sensitivity analyses.
Limitations
- The authors state that the school-quality explanation is “no more than suggestive”: observable school inputs explain only a small fraction of outcome variation, adding them increases R-squared by only .05, the Black-White gap continues to widen after including them, and Hispanics and Asians also attend worse schools but do not lose ground.
- The authors note thorny sample-selection issues in within-school comparisons and cannot rule out that Whites attending schools with Blacks are on lower academic trajectories, despite initially scoring better than other Whites.
- The paper cautions against causal interpretation of covariate coefficients, treats them as proxies for environmental and behavioral factors, and does not directly test explanations such as stereotype threat or “acting white”; the analysis covers only the first two years of school, so extrapolations to later grades are speculative.
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Claims the paper makes
121 Own result · 23 Own interpretation · 13 Sources not found · 7 No basis given · 4 Own method · 3 No full text of the sources · 2 Not checked yet
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On a wide range of 'non-standard' school inputs (e.g., gang problems in school, percent of students on free lunch, amount of loitering in front of school by non-students, amount of litter around the school, whether or not students need hall passes, and PTA funding), Blacks do appear to be attending much worse schools after controlling for individual characteristics.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics show gains relative to Whites between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of first grade.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in previous data sets, we observe substantial racial differences in test scores in the raw data: Black kindergartners score on average .64 standard deviations worse than Whites.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black children in the sample are growing up under circumstances likely to be less conducive to academic achievement than White children: lower socio-economic status, fewer children's books in the home, etc.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“even after the school input measures are added to the test-score regressions, the gap between Blacks and Whites continues to widen.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the magnitude of the coefficients on socio-economic status, age at kindergarten entry, and mother's age at first birth are smaller in the first-grade test-score regressions.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black students do not appear to suffer bigger 'summer setbacks' when school is not in session.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for a much larger set of characteristics yields the same conclusion.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjective teacher assessments of student performance yield patterns similar to the test-score data.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children on WIC do worse on the tests, suggesting that this variable is not capturing any real benefits the program might provide, but rather, the fact that eligibility for WIC is a proxy for growing up poor that the SES variable is not adequately capturing.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 43
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
- The quote only partly states this claim. 8
In the paper
“We do observe Blacks losing ground during the school year in both subjects in both years, in direct conflict with Entwisle and”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Entwisle and Alexander (1992) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the subjective teacher assessments, the raw gap in general knowledge between Blacks and Whites is much smaller (.25 standard deviations) and does shrink almost to zero with the inclusion of controls.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is true not only for Blacks, but also for Hispanics and Asians.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Including the fall kindergarten test score as a covariate predicting the spring first grade test score also has little impact on the results: Black students lose .192 (.140) standard deviations in math (reading).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“on the measured school inputs, both Hispanics and Asians also experience worse schools than Whites, but neither of those groups is losing ground.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When we eliminate students attending all-White schools from the sample, but otherwise estimate identical specifications, the results are not greatly affected. Blacks continue to lose substantial ground by the end of first grade.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: School-fixed effects control for all relevant differences in school quality between schools.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Black-White gap in math falls by more than forty percent; the reading gap is reduced by more than two-thirds.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for other characteristics, the Black-White gap shrinks to .103 standard deviations on math and .066 standard deviations on reading.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, the estimates suggest that, controlling for other factors, Black children actually score slightly better than Whites in reading, and only slightly worse in math.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Almost all of the controls enter in the predicted direction and with coefficients of plausible magnitude.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics are also worse off than Whites on average.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black children who have at least one Black teacher start out somewhat worse relative to their White peers on math and slightly better on reading, relative to Black students who have two Black teachers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is some slight evidence that Black females do better relative to Whites than do Black males.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This same set of covariates accounts for much but not all of the Hispanic-White difference in test scores, but cannot explain the high test-scores of Asians.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, just accounting for socio-economic status at kindergarten entry, we estimate the Black-White gap in reading as -.134 compared to -.67 in Phillips et. al. (1998).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Phillips et al. (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for other factors in the regressions, Black students appear to lose much more ground than they do in the raw means: -.156 standard deviations on math and .188 standard deviations on reading.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using the coefficients in columns 2 and 7, a White student that had the characteristics of the average Black child would be expected to score .07 (.13) standard deviations above (below) that average Black child on math (reading) respectively.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The patterns in the teacher assessments mirror those in the test-score data: Black and Hispanic students start out substantially below Whites, and Black students lose ground over the first two years of school, whereas Hispanics maintain their position relative to Whites.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With controls, Black students lose slightly relative to whites over the summer on math (the gap rises from -.097 to -.134), but the null hypothesis of no change cannot be rejected.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, however, the residual gap increases more than the raw gap contradicting this explanation.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite the fact that we see no difference in initial test scores for observationally equivalent Black and White children when they enter kindergarten, their paths diverge once they are in school.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In those specifications, Black students lose .136 standard deviations on math and .109 standard deviations on reading.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the percentage of students eligible for free lunch, the degree of gang problems in school, the amount of loitering in front of the school by non-students, and the amount of litter around the schools are much higher for blacks.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“less than five percent of White students have a Black teacher by the end of first grade, compared to over fifty percent of Black students.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results are generally similar across the three sets of analysis.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most notable difference between the test scores and teacher assessments is that Asian students are rated at or below the level of White students in the fall of kindergarten on the teacher assessments, but then gain relative to Whites over time.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Including number of books reduces the Black-White gap on math to less than one-fourth of a standard deviation and completely eliminates the gap in reading.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column 3 of the table shows the baseline results reflecting the fact that Blacks are losing ground in the full sample (-.156 standard deviations relative to Whites in math, -.188 standard deviations in reading).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using the coefficients in columns 3 and 8, a Black child that had the characteristics of the average White child in the sample would be estimated to score -.21 standard deviations below that White child on math and be almost exactly even in reading.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asians lose roughly as much ground as Blacks on math (although they start ahead of Whites) and also fall slightly on reading.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the raw scores, there is little difference before and after the summer break; to the extent there is any gap, it favors Black students.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People Loitering Around School (0-3) | .524 (.747) | .497 (.079) | .331 (.064) | .171 (.063) | .368 (.088) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gang Problems in School (1-3) | 1.409 (.585) | .261 (.058) | .338 (.044) | .128 (.044) | .336 (.069) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian | .265 (.048) | .115 (.044) | .409 (.058) | .345 (.045) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Percent of Students in School with Free Lunch | 29.829 (27.975) | 19.321 (2.604) | 8.173 (1.996) | 3.271 (2.076) | 6.815 (2.780) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Litter Around School (0-3) | .741 (.759) | .492 (.065) | .369 (.053) | .240 (.063) | .412 (.087) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black students perform almost as well as Whites in the fall of kindergarten on these tasks, but lag Whites by over two-tenths of a standard deviation by the spring of first grade.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results are almost identical to the predictions from our baseline specification, because the coefficients from the White regression are quite similar to those from the full sample.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“That gap has generally been declining over time, although for high school students today, the gap is slightly larger than it was in the late 1980's (Grissmer et. al. 1998, Hedges and Nowell 1998, and Humphreys 1998).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Grissmer et. al. 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hedges and Nowell 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Humphreys 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between White and Black students persists, even after controlling for a wide range of observable characteristics.”
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · plain
“Even after controlling for a wide range of covariates including family structure, socio-economic status, measures of school quality, and neighborhood characteristics, a substantial racial gap in test scores persists.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Baughman and Dahlstrom (1968)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Phillips et al. (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Finally, the gap in test scores between Blacks and Whites historically emerges before children enter kindergarten and tends to widen over time (Phillips et. al. 1998, Carneiro, Heckman, and Manoli 2002).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Phillips et. al. 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Carneiro, Heckman, and Manoli 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Socio-economic status and the effects of poverty are important factors in explaining racial differences in educational achievement (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997, Mayer 1997, BrooksGunn et. al (1994, 1995, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Mayer 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Indeed, despite the fact that Phillips et. al. (1998) have the greatest success in explaining the racial differences in reading achievement, the residual gap is almost as large as the raw gap in our data.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Phillips et al. (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The test score gaps in the fall of kindergarten (column 1) and spring of first grade (column 4) for this subset of the sample are similar to those for the sample as a whole, suggesting that the sub-sample is representative.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This logic also holds for Hispanics, but not for Asians, who seem to be more responsive to environmental influences.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, Black students are not only losing ground relative to Whites, but even more so relative to Hispanics, and somewhat less compared to Asians.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, Hernstein and Murray (1994) reduce the gap by one-third, Neal and Johnson (1996) reduce the gap by sixty percent, and Phillips et. al., (1998) reduce the black-white gap by two thirds.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hernstein and Murray (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Neal and Johnson (1996) source
- Not matchedcites Phillips et al. (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That suggests that the relative importance of non-school factors decreases over time, presumably because schools become a critical input into educational gains once children enter school.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If Black students in the sample continue to lose ground through ninth grade at the rate experienced in the first two years of school, they will lag White students on average by a full standard deviation in raw math and reading scores and over twothirds of a standard deviation in math even after controlling for observable characteristics (substantially smaller for reading).”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Even after controlling for socio-economic status in conventional regression analysis, a substantial gap still remains.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Mayer 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, it appears either that the Blacks we examine made real gains relative to Whites, or alternatively, non-random selection into earlier data sets led to exaggerated estimates of the racial gap in earlier studies.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To the extent that skill in manipulating numbers is likely to be a more important input into understanding higher-order math than are simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size, these results may foreshadow continued losses for Blacks relative to Whites in math as they age.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Skill in manipulating numbers is a more important input into understanding higher-order math than simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The bottom panel is teacher assessments, controlling for teacher-fixed effects.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of our regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and we include dummies for missing data.”
- Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
“The method of estimation is weighted least squares using sample weights provided by ECLS.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The top panel of the table reports results from regressions including the parsimonious set of controls.”
- Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
“The parsimonious set of controls is included in all regressions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
The authors state this as an assumption.
Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
“The results presented in Tables 2 and 3 maintain the assumption that children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The ECLS-K is a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998.
“The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The covariates in the sparse regressions are proxies for a broad set of environmental and behavioral factors.
“We caution against a causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates, which we view as proxies for a broad set of environmental and behavioral factors.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
“to the extent our control variables adequately capture a child's environment, the residual gap after including all the covariates would remain constant.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Skill in manipulating numbers is a more important input into understanding higher-order math than simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size.
“To the extent that skill in manipulating numbers is likely to be a more important input into understanding higher-order math than are simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teacher assessments provide a valid measure of student achievement for testing whether test-score results are an artifact of standardized testing.
“To assess this hypothesis, we examined the relative performance of children of different races on subject teacher evaluations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
School-fixed effects control for all relevant differences in school quality between schools.
“With school-fixed effects, the estimated Black-White test score gap is identified off of the relative performance of Blacks and Whites attending the same school, as opposed to across schools.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“FL (see also Fryer and Levitt 2004), showed that differences in covariates explained roughly the same absolute black-white gap across specifications for Kindergarten, 1 st , and 3 rd grade scores, but that the unexplained gap grew monotonically across these grades.”
From Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap (2013) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Any optimism, however, is tempered by the fact that by the end of first grade (the last data used in Fryer and Levitt 2004) Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Both Blacks and the Whites that attended schools with Blacks lost substantial amount on tests relative to Whites at other schools.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They find that these variables can fully explain the black-white gap in reading and (to a lesser extent) math scores among entering kindergarteners in the ECLS sample.”
From Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap (2013) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“It was shown that, relative to Whites attending the same schools, Blacks lost only a small amount of ground.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Including school fixed effects eliminates twothirds of the difference in the learning trajectory of blacks and whites over the first two years of school.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Second, in stark contrast to previous studies, Fryer and Levitt (2004) are able to eliminate the black-white test score gap for incoming kindergartners with the inclusion of just a parsimonious set of controls.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Fryer and Levitt (2004) tested six theories to explain why black kids lost ground relative to whites between fall kindergarten and spring first grade. The only hypothesis that received any empirical backing was differences in school quality.”
From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The finding that neighborhood effects on racial gaps are proportional to childhood exposure is consistent with prior evidence documenting the emergence of racial gaps in achievement in childhood (Fryer and Levitt 2004) and the importance of pre-labor-market measures in explaining racial gaps in labor market outcomes (Neal and Johnson 1996; Altonji and Blank 1999; Fryer 2010).”
From Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective* (2020) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?
“Finally, on the measured school inputs, both Hispanics and Asians also experience worse schools than Whites, but neither of those groups is losing ground.”
§ V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age
“Asians lose roughly as much ground as Blacks on math (although they start ahead of Whites) and also fall slightly on reading.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?
“Black children who have at least one Black teacher start out somewhat worse relative to their White peers on math and slightly better on reading, relative to Black students who have two Black teachers.”
§ Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?
“Columns 1 and 2 correspond to the sub-sample of students neither of whose teachers in kindergarten or first grade are Black. Columns 3 and 4 reflect students who have at least one Black teacher.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ VII. Conclusion
“| (Number of Books) (squared) (*1000) | .020 (.002) | -.019 (.003) | -.021 (.003) | -.022 (.003) |”
§ VII. Conclusion
“| -.020 (.002) | -.017 | (.003) -.017 (.007) | -.040 (.015) | (.006) | -.032 | -.021 (.003) -.020 (.003) | -.012 (.010) | -.044 (.018) | -.025 (.008) | (Number of Books) (squared) (*1000) |”
Citations
Cites
Black students' school success: Coping with the ?burden of ?acting white??
Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/bf01112192 · Cited by 3,323
How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907 · cited 1×
“…and Insko (1987), Brooks-Gunn et al. (1993a) (1994) (1996), Coleman et al. (1966), Coley (2002), Hernstein and Murray (1994), Humphreys (1988), Jensen (1969, 1973), Kaufman and Kaufman (1983), Krohn and Lamp (1989), Naglieri (1986), Phillips et al. (1998), Phillips (2000), and Scarr (1981).…”
Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development
Duncan, G. J., Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00752.x · Cited by 2,127
Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?
Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B., Duncan, G. J., Klebanov, P. K., & Sealand, N. (1993) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/230268 · Cited by 1,687
The Role of Premarket Factors in Black-White Wage Differences
Neal, D. A., & Johnson, W. R. (1996) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/262045 · Cited by 1,340
Economic Deprivation and Early Childhood Development
Duncan, G. J., Brooks‐Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1131385 · Cited by 1,231
Entwisle, D. R., & Alexander, K. L. (1992) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096145 · Cited by 440
The Effects of Catholic Secondary Schooling on Educational Achievement
Neal, D. (1997) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/209848 · Cited by 411
The Role of Human Capital in Earnings Differences Between Black and White Men
O'Neill, J. (1990) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.4.4.25 · Cited by 362
Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P. K., & Duncan, G. J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01741.x · Cited by 349
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Armor G., 1992, Public Interest, 65
- 10.2307/1131822 · DOI
- Brooks-Gunn J., Child Development, 63, 736
- Goldberg A., 1995, Journal of Economic Literature, 33, 762
- Jencks C., 1998, American Prospect, 40, 44
- Krohn E., 1989, Journal of Psychology, 27, 59
- Naglieri J., 1986, Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 81
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Items 201–300 of 940
An Effort to Close Achievement Gaps at Scale Through Self-Affirmation
Borman, G. D., Grigg, J. A., & Hanselman, P. (2015) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373715581709 · Cited by 76
Do School Counselors Exhibit Bias in Recommending Students for Advanced Coursework?
Francis, D. V., de Oliveira, A. C. M., & Dimmitt, C. (2019) · The B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy · doi:10.1515/bejeap-2018-0189 · Cited by 62
Sznitman, S. R., Reisel, L., & Römer, D. (2010) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.06.013 · Cited by 60
Verachtert, P., Van Damme, J., Onghena, P., & Ghesquière, P. (2009) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243450902883896 · Cited by 58
Teacher Qualifications, Instructional Practices, and Reading and Mathematics Gains of Kindergartners
Guarino, C. M., & Hamilton, L. S. (2006) · Cited by 62
Sociodemographic risk, parenting, and executive functions in early childhood: The role of ethnicity
Holochwost, S. J., Gariépy, J., Propper, C. B., Gardner‐Neblett, N., Volpe, V. V., Neblett, E. W., & Mills-Koonce, R. (2016) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.02.001 · Cited by 68
A Review of School Readiness Practices in the States: Early Learning Guidelines and Assessments
Daily, S., Burkhauser, M., & Halle, T. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e573282010-001 · Cited by 60
Disentangling the racial test score gap: Probing the evidence in a large urban school district
Stiefel, L., Schwartz, A. E., & Ellen, I. G. (2006) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20225 · Cited by 59
Boyce, S., Bazargan, M., Caldwell, C. H., Zimmerman, M. A., & Assari, S. (2020) · Children · doi:10.3390/children7050044 · Cited by 71
Kraft, M. A., & Monti-Nussbaum, M. (2017) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716217732009 · Cited by 70
Neighborhood, race and educational inequality
Wei, Y. D., Xiao, W., Simon, C. A., Liu, B., & Ni, Y. (2017) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2017.09.013 · Cited by 62
Clinton, J. D., & Grissom, J. A. (2015) · Journal of Public Policy · doi:10.1017/s0143814x14000312 · Cited by 59
Barrera‐Osorio, F., Garcia-Moreno, V. A., Patrinos, H. A., & Porta, E. E. (2011) · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-5584 · Cited by 57
Is School Segregation Good or Bad?
Echenique, F., Fryer, R. G., & Kaufman, A. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282806777212198 · Cited by 56
Self-citationRacial inequality in the 21st century: the declining significance of discrimination
Fryer, R. G. (2011) · Handbook of labour economics · doi:10.1016/s0169-7218(11)02408-7 · Cited by 60
Self-citationRacial Discrimination and Competition
Levine, R. E., Levkov, A., & Yona Rubinstein, Z. (2008) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w14273 · Cited by 51
Harris, A. L. (2008) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00551.x · Cited by 56
Bassok, D., & Latham, S. (2017) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x17694161 · Cited by 55
The impact of the 1999 education reform in Poland
Jakubowski, M., Porta, E., Wiśniewski, J., & Patrinos, H. (2010) · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-5263 · Cited by 75
Teacher ethnicity, student ethnicity, and student outcomes
Driessen, G. W. J. M. (2015) · Intercultural Education · doi:10.1080/14675986.2015.1048049 · Cited by 54
Quality Of Schooling And Quality Of Schools For Indigenous Students In Guatemala, Mexico, And Peru
Hernandez-Zavala, M., Patrinos, H. A., Sakellariou, C. N., & Shapiro, J. (2006) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-3982 · Cited by 53
BIRTH WEIGHT AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN CHILDHOOD
Chatterji, P., Kim, D., & Lahiri, K. (2014) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.3074 · Cited by 55
The Labor Market and Young Black Men: Updating Moynihan's Perspective
Holzer, H. (2009) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716208324627 · Cited by 60
Beck, A. N., & Muschkin, C. G. (2012) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2012.55.4.637 · Cited by 52
Transforming Lives: The Impact of Compulsory Schooling on Hope and Happiness
Dursun, B., & Cesur, R. (2016) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-016-0592-1 · Cited by 51
Is Justice Really Blind? Race and Reversal in US Courts
Sen, M. (2015) · The Journal of Legal Studies · doi:10.1086/682691 · Cited by 51
Ending Extreme Poverty and Sharing Prosperity: Progress and Policies
Foster, J. E., Cruz, M., Quillin, B., & Schellekens, P. (2015) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/23604 · Cited by 51
Towards a framework for the validation of early childhood assessment systems
Goldstein, J. S., & Flake, J. K. (2015) · Educational Assessment Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-015-9231-8 · Cited by 50
The black–white test score gap and early home environment
Yeung, W. J., & Pfeiffer, K. M. (2008) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.11.004 · Cited by 50
Patterns of Hispanic Students' Math Skill Proficiency in the Early Elementary Grades
Reardon, S. F., & Galindo, C. (2007) · Journal of Latinos and Education · doi:10.1080/15348430701312883 · Cited by 50
Trawick‐Smith, J., Swaminathan, S., Baton, B., Danieluk, C., Marsh, S., & Szarwacki, M. (2016) · Journal of Early Childhood Research · doi:10.1177/1476718x16664557 · Cited by 62
Kim, Y., Calzada, E. J., Barajas-Gonzalez, R. G., Huang, K., Brotman, L. M., Castro, A. S., & Pichardo, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000192 · Cited by 55
Kuhfeld, M. R., Condron, D. J., & Downey, D. B. (2020) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x20977854 · Cited by 51
Robinson, J. P. (2008) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373708317742 · Cited by 50
Sorting, peers, and achievement of Aboriginal students in British Columbia
Friesen, J., & Krauth, B. V. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5982.2010.01614.x · Cited by 50
Categorical Cognition: A Psychological Model of Categories and Identification in Decision Making
Fryer, R. G., & Jackson, M. O. (2003) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w9579 · Cited by 50
Self-citationCui, R., Li, J., & Zhang, D. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2882982 · Cited by 50
The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11049 · Cited by 50
Self-citationSchool Opportunity Hoarding? Racial Segregation and Access to High Growth Schools
Hanselman, P., & Fiel, J. E. (2016) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sow088 · Cited by 51
Gigliotti, P., & Sorensen, L. C. (2018) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.004 · Cited by 49
The Dynamics of School Attainment of Englands Ethnic MinoritiesPreprint
Briggs, A., BURGESS, S. M., & Wilson, D. (2006) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 49
Ability rise in NAEP and narrowing ethnic gaps?
Rindermann, H., & Thompson, J. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.06.016 · Cited by 48
The Role of Out-of-School Factors in the Literacy Problem
Waldfogel, J. (2012) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.2012.0016 · Cited by 48
Impact of dialect use on a basic component of learning to read
Brown, M. C., Sibley, D. E., Washington, J. A., Rogers, T. T., Edwards, J., MacDonald, M. C., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00196 · Cited by 48
Exploring Longitudinal Changes in Teacher Expectancy Effects on Children's Mathematics Achievement
Jamil, F. M., Larsen, R., & Hamre, B. K. (2018) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.49.1.0057 · Cited by 48
Relative Age Effects: Implications for Leadership Development
Dixon, J. C., Horton, S., & Weir, P. L. (2011) · The International Journal of Sport and Society · doi:10.18848/2152-7857/cgp/v02i02/54068 · Cited by 46
Do some schools narrow the gap? Differential school effectiveness revisited
Strand, S. (2016) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.3054 · Cited by 52
Racially Distinctive Names Signal Both Race/Ethnicity and Social Class
Crabtree, C. D., Gaddis, S. M., Holbein, J. B., & Larsen, E. N. (2022) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v9.a18 · Cited by 49
Intergenerational family predictors of the Black–White achievement gap.
Mandara, J., Varner, F. A., Greene, N., & Richman, S. B. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016644 · Cited by 46
Guthridge, S. L., Li, L., Silburn, S., Li, S. Q., McKenzie, J., & Lynch, J. W. (2016) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.008 · Cited by 45
Pelatti, C. Y., Dynia, J. M., Logan, J. A. R., Justice, L. M., & Kaderavek, J. N. (2016) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9359-9 · Cited by 45
The development of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic achievement gaps during the school years
Kuhfeld, M. R., Gershoff, E. T., & Paschall, K. W. (2018) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.07.001 · Cited by 62
Estimating cognitive gaps between Indigenous and non‐Indigenous Australians
Leigh, A., & Gong, X. (2008) · Education Economics · doi:10.1080/09645290802069418 · Cited by 46
Motherhood Delay and the Human Capital of the Next Generation
Miller, A. R. (2009) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.99.2.154 · Cited by 44
Unexplained Gaps and Oaxaca-Blinder DecompositionsPreprint
Elder, T. E., Goddeeris, J. H., & Haider, S. J. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1342576 · Cited by 44
Ellison, G., & Pathak, P. A. (2021) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20161290 · Cited by 44
NEET Youth in the Aftermath of the CrisisPreprint
Carcillo, S., Fernandez, R., Königs, S., & Minea, A. (2015) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 43
Explaining the black–white gap in cognitive test scores: Toward a theory of adverse impact.
Cottrell, J., Newman, D. A., & Roisman, G. I. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000020 · Cited by 49
Soland, J. G. (2018) · Applied Measurement in Education · doi:10.1080/08957347.2018.1495213 · Cited by 48
Assessed by a Teacher Like Me: Race, Gender, and Subjective EvaluationsPreprint
Ouazad, A. C.-L. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1267109 · Cited by 43
Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap
Rothstein, J., & Wozny, N. (2013) · Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.48.3.510 · Cited by 41
Is Parental Love Colorblind? Human Capital Accumulation within Mixed Families
Rangel, M. A. (2014) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1007/s12114-014-9190-1 · Cited by 43
Carruthers, C. K., & Wanamaker, M. (2013) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2013.02.003 · Cited by 41
Akresh, R., & Akresh, I. R. (2011) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.1353/jhr.2011.0018 · Cited by 40
Workforce Development as an Antipoverty Strategy: What Do We Know? What Should We Do?Preprint
Holzer, H. J. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1293548 · Cited by 40
Hanselman, P. (2018) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040718761127 · Cited by 43
Loeb, S., Bridges, M., Fuller, B. C., Rumberger, R., & Bassok, D. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11812 · Cited by 45
Race of the interviewer and the black–white test score gap
Huang, M.-H. (2008) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.07.004 · Cited by 38
Banerjee, N. (2017) · Journal of Research in Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/02568543.2017.1393032 · Cited by 37
Preschool Predictors of the Need for Early Remedial and Special Education Services
Mann, E. A., McCartney, K., & Park, J. M. (2006) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/511707 · Cited by 37
Murray, C. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.02.001 · Cited by 37
A cross-national analysis of parental involvement and student literacy
Hampden‐Thompson, G., Guzman, L., & Lippman, L. (2013) · International Journal of Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1177/0020715213501183 · Cited by 55
Maaz, K., Baumert, J., & Trautwein, U. (2010) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-92216-4_2 · Cited by 36
The effect of free primary school choice on ethnic groups — Evidence from a policy reform
Schneider, K., Schuchart, C., Weishaupt, H., et al. (2012) · European Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2012.05.002 · Cited by 35
Porumbescu, G. A., Piotrowski, S. J., & Mabillard, V. (2020) · Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory · doi:10.1093/jopart/muaa049 · Cited by 36
Stiefel, L., Schwartz, A. E., & Chellman, C. C. (2007) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904806289207 · Cited by 35
Patterns and Trends in Racial Academic Achievement Gaps Among States, 1999-2011
Reardon, S. F., Valentino, R. A., Kalogrides, D., Shores, K., & Greenberg, E. H. (2013) · Cited by 35
Birth Cohort and the Black-White Achievement Gap: The Roles of Access and Health Soon After BirthPreprint
Chay, K. Y., Guryan, J., & Bhashkar Mazumder, B. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1311992 · Cited by 36
Schenke, K., Nguyen, T., Watts, T. W., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000165 · Cited by 34
Gopalan, M. (2019) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.27.4469 · Cited by 50
Swain, W. A., Rodríguez, L. A., & Springer, M. G. (2018) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.12.008 · Cited by 34
Begolli, K. N., Dai, T., McGinn, K. M., & Booth, J. L. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09550-9 · Cited by 51
Beyond Free Lunch: Which Family Background Measures Matter?
Lubienski, S. T., & Crane, C. C. (2010) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.v18n11.2010 · Cited by 33
The Case for Early, Targeted Interventions to Prevent Academic Failure
Perez‐Johnson, I., & Maynard, R. A. (2007) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/01619560701602983 · Cited by 34
Johnson, R. C., & Jackson, C. K. (2017) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w23489 · Cited by 35
Trajectories of Achievement Within Race/Ethnicity: “Catching Up” in Achievement Across Time
Davis-Kean, P. E., & Jager, J. (2013) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2013.807493 · Cited by 33
Summer Learning Inequality in Ontario
Davies, S., & Aurini, J. (2013) · Canadian Public Policy · doi:10.3138/cpp.39.2.287 · Cited by 33
Dialect variation, dialect-shifting, and reading comprehension in second grade
Terry, N. P., Connor, C. M., Johnson, L., Stuckey, A., & Tani, N. E. (2015) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-015-9593-9 · Cited by 35
Raising the Bar on Teacher Quality: Assessing the Impact of Increasing Licensure Exam Cut-Scores
Shuls, J. V. (2017) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904816682315 · Cited by 33
How Much Does the Cardinal Treatment of Ordinal Variables Matter? An Empirical Investigation
Bloem, J. R. (2021) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1017/pan.2020.55 · Cited by 32
Educational Achievement and Socio-economic Background: Causality and Mechanisms in Senegal
Dumas, C., & Lambert, S. (2010) · Journal of African Economies · doi:10.1093/jae/ejq028 · Cited by 33
Family and Schooling Experiences in Racial/Ethnic Academic Achievement Gaps
Potter, D. J., & Morris, D. S. M. (2016) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0731121416629989 · Cited by 33
Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap
Rothstein, J., & Wozny, N. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17610 · Cited by 34
Aratani, Y., Wight, V. R., & Cooper, J. L. (2011) · Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University) · doi:10.7916/d8gq75r6 · Cited by 33
A NEW INSIGHT INTO THE GENDER GAP IN MATH
Sohn, K. (2010) · Bulletin of Economic Research · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8586.2010.00358.x · Cited by 32
Black–White Summer Learning Gaps
Quinn, D. M. (2014) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373714534522 · Cited by 35
How Does Test Exemption Affect Schools’ and Students’ Academic Performance?
Jennings, J. L., & Beveridge, A. A. (2009) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373708328468 · Cited by 34
The Black–White Education Scaled Test-Score Gap in Grades K-7
Bond, T. N., & Lang, K. (2018) · The Journal of human resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.53.4.0916.8242r · Cited by 44
Multi-Informant Assessment of ADHD Symptom-Related Impairments Among Children and Adolescents
Power, T. J., Watkins, M. W., Anastopoulos, A. D., Reid, R., Lambert, M. C., & DuPaul, G. J. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1079781 · Cited by 36
Blazar, D. (2024) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x241261336 · Cited by 32
Metadata
- Authors
- Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D.
- Affiliations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- American Bar Foundation (US)
- ORCID
- Fryer, Roland G.
- Venue
- Review of Economics and Statistics
- Publisher
- MIT Press - Journals
- Published
- 2004-05
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 447-464
- ISSN
- 0034-6535 (ISSN-L)
- 1530-9142
- OpenAlex
- W3021983229
- Cited by
- 936
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 152.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Review of Economics and Statistics (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- Black-White test score gap, early childhood education, kindergarten, school quality, racial achievement gap, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, covariate control, Black students
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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