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Cited by 424School Choice and PerformanceCritical Race Theory in EducationIntergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies

The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade

Fryer, R. G.·2006·American Law and Economics Review
DOI 10.1093/aler/ahl003
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Abstract

This article describes basic facts regarding the Black-White test score gap over the first four years of school. Black children enter school substantially behind their White counterparts in reading and math, but including a small number of covariates erases the gap. Over the first four years of school, however, Blacks lose substantial ground relative to other races; averaging 0.10 standard deviations per school year. By the end of third grade, there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics. Blacks are falling behind in virtually all categories of skills tested, except the most basic. None of the explanations we examine, including systematic differences in school quality across races, convincingly explain the divergent academic trajectory of Black students.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using ECLS-K data through third grade, Fryer and Levitt show that Black students enter school behind Whites in reading and math, but with a parsimonious set of controls the initial gap is small; over the first four years of school Blacks lose substantial ground relative to Whites. By third grade a large Black-White test score gap remains that observable characteristics, school quality, teacher fixed effects, and changing test content do not convincingly explain.

Key findings

  • Raw Black-White gaps widen from .663 SD in fall-kindergarten math to .882 SD by spring third grade, and from .400 SD to .771 SD in reading. With controls, the Black coefficient in math goes from -.099 SD in fall kindergarten to -.382 SD in spring third grade; in reading it goes from +.13 SD in fall kindergarten to -.282 SD in spring third grade. Blacks lose on average .10 SD per school year relative to Whites, totaling .283 SD in math and .41 SD in reading over the first four years.
  • School quality becomes less convincing as an explanation when data extend through third grade. Including school fixed effects leaves two-thirds of the Black-White difference, and all ground lost between first and third grade is within rather than across schools; teacher fixed effects produce essentially unchanged results.
  • By third grade, gaps appear in every skill tested in reading and math except the most basic tasks mastered by virtually all students. The largest gaps are in multiplication/division and literal inference: over 85% of White students mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15–20% lower for Blacks after controls.
  • Hispanics gain ground relative to Whites despite worse initial conditions, while Asians’ early advantage is maintained or diminishes depending on subject; neither group shows the Black pattern of divergence.

Methods

  • Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998, with tests in fall and spring kindergarten, spring first grade, and spring third grade; roughly 1,000 schools. Analysis samples are 11,201 observations for math and 10,540 for reading.
  • Measures: standardized item response theory (IRT) math and reading scores, normalized to mean zero and SD one; controls include ECLS socioeconomic composite, number of children’s books and its square, gender, age, birth weight, mother’s age at first birth, and WIC participation.
  • Analysis: weighted least squares cross-sectional regressions with race dummies; school and teacher fixed effects in Table 6; probit regressions for skill mastery in Table 8. Students missing test scores, race, or age are dropped.

Limitations

  • Stated: the authors say a causal interpretation of covariate coefficients is likely inappropriate and view the variables as proxies for broader environmental and behavioral factors. They also state that explanations for Black students losing ground remain elusive, that school-quality evidence is not conclusive, and that the data cannot definitively determine whether Black students eventually master higher-order skills or never do.
  • Stated: school fixed effects may also capture neighborhood effects because school assignment depends heavily on residential location, making school quality difficult to separate from neighborhood quality.
  • Evident from the text: the analysis is observational and cross-sectional, uses data only through third grade, and relies on a limited set of proxies rather than direct measures of mechanisms such as parenting, peer norms, or instructional quality.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/aler/ahl003

Cites

16 of 16 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

7 of 14 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation
    § ABSTRACT · p. 3

    By the end of first grade, Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.

    “Any optimism, however, is tempered by the fact that by the end of first grade (the last data used in Fryer and Levitt 2004) Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source

      Section V reports that Black students lost ground relative to White students between the start of kindergarten and the end of first grade: 0.156 standard deviations in math and 0.188 in reading after controls. Our copy does not express that loss as the equivalent of almost three months of schooling, so the claim’s magnitude in months is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation
    § ABSTRACT · p. 3

    Fryer and Levitt (2004) were able to eliminate the black-white test score gap for incoming kindergartners with the inclusion of just a parsimonious set of controls.

    “Second, in stark contrast to previous studies, Fryer and Levitt (2004) are able to eliminate the black-white test score gap for incoming kindergartners with the inclusion of just a parsimonious set of controls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
  • Premisecitation
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools? · p. 16

    In Fryer and Levitt (2004), the only hypothesis that received empirical backing for why Black children lost ground relative to Whites between fall kindergarten and spring first grade was differences in school quality.

    “Fryer and Levitt (2004) tested six theories to explain why black kids lost ground relative to whites between fall kindergarten and spring first grade. The only hypothesis that received any empirical backing was differences in school quality.”
    • Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
      “Fryer and Levitt (2004) test a wide range of hypotheses, finding some empirical support for only one explanation: differential school quality across races.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
  • Premisecitation
    § ABSTRACT · p. 4

    Including school fixed effects eliminates two-thirds of the difference in the learning trajectory of blacks and whites over the first two years of school.

    “Including school fixed effects eliminates twothirds of the difference in the learning trajectory of blacks and whites over the first two years of school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
  • Premisecitation
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools? · p. 16

    In Fryer and Levitt (2004), relative to Whites attending the same schools, Blacks lost only a small amount of ground.

    “It was shown that, relative to Whites attending the same schools, Blacks lost only a small amount of ground.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
  • May combine two claims. 32
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 18

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools? · p. 17

    As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in specifications with school fixed effects.

    “As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    Hispanics experience a much smaller gap relative to Whites, and it does not grow.

    “Hispanics experience a much smaller gap relative to Whites, and it does not grow.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 19

    By the spring of third grade, over 85 percent of White students have mastered multiplication and division and 'literal inference,' but mastery rates are 15-20 percent lower for Blacks, even after controlling for other factors.

    “By the spring of third grade, over 85 percent of White students have mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15-20 percent lower for Blacks, even after controlling for other factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Does the importance of parental/environmental inputs grow as children age? · p. 18

    The residual gap increases more than the raw gap, contradicting the explanation that the importance of parental/environmental inputs grows as children age.

    “In fact, however, the residual gap increases more than the raw gap contradicting this explanation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 12

    Girls lose over two-tenths of a standard deviation relative to boys on math over the four year period.

    “We also observe striking losses by girls relative to boys on math - over two-tenths of a standard deviation over the four year period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    In the baseline specification, Blacks lose an average of .283 standard deviations in math and .41 in reading relative to Whites over the first four years of school.

    “In that specification, Blacks lose an average of .283 standard deviations in math and .41 in reading relative to Whites over the first four years of school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 10

    Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mothers at the time of first birth all score better.

    “Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better, although the benefit of entering school at a later age decreases steadily over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 19

    Controlling for observables, upon entry to school the gaps between Whites and Blacks tend to be small, on both math and reading skills, and regardless of whether the skill is mastered by many or few students.

    “Controlling for observables, upon entry to school the gaps between Whites and Blacks tend to be small. This is true on both math and reading skills, and regardless of whether the skill is mastered by many of the students or relatively few of the students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 19

    In addition and subtraction, Black students lag significantly in first grade, but both Blacks and Whites achieve almost complete mastery by third grade.

    “In addition and subtraction, which is challenging for many first graders regardless of race, the Black students lag significantly in first grade, but both Blacks and Whites achieve almost complete mastery by third grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT · p. 5

    Blacks lose substantial ground relative to whites within the same school and even in the same classrooms.

    “Blacks lose substantial ground relative to whites within the same school and even in the same classrooms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    The results appear to be similar across quintiles of the socio-economic status distribution and by family structure.

    “The results appear to be similar across quintiles of the socio-economic status distribution and by family structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 19

    In the raw data, Blacks lag Whites somewhat on virtually all types of questions, except those which are mastered by virtually all students of a given grade level; this is true both at entry to school and even more so by the end of third grade.

    “In the raw data, Blacks lag Whites somewhat on virtually all types of questions, except those which are mastered by virtually all students of a given grade level. That is true both at entry to school, and even more so by the end of third grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 18

    Controlling for the parsimonious specification yields a coefficient on Black of -.382 in the third grade math regression and -.249 in reading.

    “Controlling for our parsimonious specification yields a coefficient on black of -.382 in the third grade math regression and -.249 in reading.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 12

    Controlling for whether or not English is spoken in the home does little to affect the initial gap or the trajectory of Hispanics.

    “Controlling for whether or not English is spoken in the home does little to affect the initial gap or the trajectory of Hispanics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 19

    In addition and subtraction, as well as some basic reading skills like 'words in context,' a few percent of Blacks fail to master the material even though almost all Whites do.

    “In that subject, as well as some of the basic reading skills like 'words in context,' a few percent of Blacks fail to master the material even though almost all Whites do.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    Hispanics in the West do not exhibit this same pattern; they remain steady versus Whites.

    “Hispanics in the West do not exhibit this same pattern; they remain steady versus Whites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 10

    Socio-economic status and the number of children's books in the home are important predictors of test scores at each grade level.

    “Socio-economic status and the number of children's books in the home are important predictors of test scores at each grade level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § V. Conclusion · p. 21

    The divergence in test scores relative to Whites is not apparent for either Hispanics or Asians.

    “The divergence in test scores relative to Whites is not apparent for either Hispanics or Asians.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § V. Conclusion · p. 21

    Using newly collected data on a recent cohort from the ECLS, the authors document substantial Black-White test score gaps in both math and reading that grow at approximately .10 standard deviations per year that children are in school.

    “Using newly collected data on a recent cohort from the ECLS, we document substantial Black-White test score gaps in both math and reading that grow at approximately .10 standard deviations per year that children are in school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 15

    Black children in the sample may be somewhat less responsive to changes in socio-economic status than Whites: a one-standard deviation improvement in socio-economic status for a Black child is associated with a .192 standard deviation increase in math scores, compared to .343 for a White child, but the results are more similar on reading scores.

    “One difference is that the Black children in our sample may be somewhat less responsive to changes in socio-economic status than Whites: a one-standard deviation improvement in socio-economic status for a Black child is associated with a .192 standard deviation increase in math scores, compared to .343 for a White child, but the results are more similar on reading scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools? · p. 17

    The results presented in the table are essentially unchanged when teacher fixed effects are included, so that the differences are identified off of children in the very same classroom.

    “The results presented in the table, however, are essentially unchanged when we include teacher fixed effects, so that the differences are identified off of children in the very same classroom.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § V. Conclusion · p. 21

    The authors explore whether the growing racial test score gap could be attributed to inherent difficulties in testing achievement at especially young ages, or the possibility of increasing importance of home inputs for the development of higher-order thinking, but can provide no compelling evidence confirming these hypotheses either.

    “We also explore whether the growing racial test score gap could be attributed to the inherent difficulties in testing achievement at especially young ages, or the possibility of increasing importance of home inputs for the development of higher-order thinking, but can provide no compelling evidence confirming these hypotheses either.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT · p. 2

    By the end of third grade there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics.

    “By the end of third grade there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics.”
    • Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · p. 5 · plain
      “By the end of third grade, even after controlling for observables, the black-white test score gap is evident in every skill tested in reading and math except for the most basic tasks such as counting and letter recognition which virtually all students have mastered.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 28

    With covariates, the estimated Black-White reading achievement gap is 0.13 standard deviations (SE 0.030) in the fall of kindergarten.

    “| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 10

    A one-standard deviation increase in the SES variable is associated with a .30 increase in fall kindergarten math scores and a .29 increase in spring first grade math scores.

    “A onestandard deviation increase in the SES variable is associated with a .30 increase in fall kindergarten math scores and a .29 increase in spring first grade math scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    The coefficient on the indicator variable black is .13 standard deviation above whites in the fall of kindergarten and .282 standard deviations below whites in the spring of third grade, or a loss of over .40 standard deviations for the typical Black child relative to the typical White.

    “The coefficient on the indicator variable black is .13 standard deviation above whites in the fall of kindergarten and .282 standard deviations below whites in the spring of third grade, or a loss of over .40 standard deviations for the typical Black child relative to the typical White.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 12

    Hispanics gain substantial ground relative to whites, despite being plagued with many of the social problems that exist among blacks.

    “In contrast to Blacks, Hispanics gain substantial ground relative to whites, despite the fact that they are plagued with many of the social problems that exist among blacks - low socioeconomic status, inferior schools, and so on.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For math, the difference in the Black coefficient between spring third grade and fall kindergarten is -0.243 without school fixed effects.

    “Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For reading, the Black coefficient is -.249 in spring third grade without school fixed effects.

    “Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For reading, the difference in the Black coefficient between spring third grade and fall kindergarten is -0.343 without school fixed effects.

    “Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For math, the difference in the Black coefficient between spring third grade and fall kindergarten is -0.180 with school fixed effects.

    “Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 34

    In spring third grade, the coefficient on Black for 'Evaluation' is -.015 (SE .003).

    “Evaluation | ------------- | ------------- | -.015 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 29

    In the full sample, the coefficient on socioeconomic status for math scores in the fall of kindergarten is 0.306 (SE 0.016).

    “| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For reading, the Black coefficient is .094 in fall kindergarten without school fixed effects.

    “Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For math, the Black coefficient is -0.375 in spring third grade without school fixed effects.

    “Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For math, the Black coefficient is -0.27 in spring first grade without school fixed effects.

    “Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 29

    In the full sample, the coefficient on socioeconomic status for math scores in the spring of third grade is 0.288 (SE 0.015).

    “| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 34

    In spring third grade, the coefficient on Black for 'Extrapolation' is -.103 (SE .020).

    “Extrapolation | ------------- | ------------- | -.103 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 34

    In spring third grade, the coefficient on Black for 'Literal Inference' is -.149 (SE .019).

    “Literal Inference | ------------- | -.004 | -.149 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 33

    In spring third grade, the coefficient on Black for 'Add/Subtract' is -.039 (SE .009).

    “Add/Subtract | -.000 | -.152 | -.039 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 30

    In the full sample, the coefficient on Black for reading scores in fall kindergarten is 0.13 (SE 0.030).

    “Black | 0.13 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.282 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For reading, the difference in the Black coefficient between spring third grade and fall kindergarten is -0.214 with school fixed effects.

    “Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 33

    In spring third grade, the coefficient on Black for 'Multiply/Divide' is -.179 (SE .019).

    “Multiply/Divide | ------------- | -.027 | -.179 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For math, the Black coefficient is -0.132 in fall kindergarten without school fixed effects.

    “Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 31

    For reading, the Black coefficient is -.062 in spring first grade without school fixed effects.

    “Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § References · p. 28

    In the baseline specification, the estimated Black-White math achievement gap is -0.099 standard deviations (SE 0.026) in kindergarten.

    “| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
    • Also stated in: § References · p. 29 · plain
      “| Black | -0.099 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.382 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Data Appendix · p. 22

    All of the authors' regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and they include dummies for missing data.

    “All of our regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and we include dummies for missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 20

    The patterns in Table 8 raise the specter of the scenario that as skills become more difficult, a nontrivial fraction of Black students may never master the skills.

    “While the data available thus far cannot speak definitively in determining which of these scenarios is more likely, the patterns in Table 8 do raise the specter of the latter scenario being possible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § II. The Data · p. 8

    Results are not sensitive to normalizing the IRT scores to have a zero mean and standard deviation equal to one.

    “Our results are not sensitive to normalizing the IRT scores to have a zero mean and standard deviation equal to one.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ABSTRACT · p. 2

    Prior research shows black children enter kindergarten lagging their white counterparts, and these differences grow throughout the school years.

    “Prior research shows black children enter kindergarten lagging their white counterparts, and these differences grow throughout the school years (Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000, Carneiro and Heckman 2002, Coleman et. al 1966, Neal 2004, Phillips, Crouse, and Ralph 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000
    • cites Carneiro and Heckman 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Neal 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § II. The Data · p. 8

    A causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates is likely to be inappropriate; the variables are viewed as proxies for a broader set of environmental and behavioral factors.

    “It is important to stress that a causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates is likely to be inappropriate; we view these particular variables as proxies for a broader set of environmental and behavioral factors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § II. The Data · p. 8

    None of the findings are sensitive to other choices of weights, or not weighting at all.

    “None of our findings are sensitive to other choices of weights, or not weighting at all.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools? · p. 17

    Neither school quality nor tracking within schools is the primary explanation for Black digression.

    “We conclude that neither school quality nor tracking within schools is the primary explanation for black digression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 18

    To the extent that current and lagged environments are highly correlated, controlling for current inputs is likely to yield similar estimates on average of the racial test score gap, and indeed that is the case.

    “To the extent that current and lagged environments are highly correlated, controlling for current inputs is likely to yield similar estimates on average of the racial test score gap, and indeed that is the case.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Did the type of material tested change to the detriment of blacks? · p. 18

    Test scores in the fall of kindergarten are strongly predictive of test scores in spring of third grade.

    “Arguing against such a hypothesis, as Rock and Stenner (2004) note, is the fact that test scores in the fall of kindergarten are strongly predictive of test scores in spring of third grade; if the two tests are capturing very different sets of skills, this would not be expected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rock and Stenner (2004)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § III. Basic Facts about Racial Differences in Early Achievement · p. 13

    Blacks in the West are losing the great majority of this ground relative to Whites in the same classrooms, so differential school quality across races does not appear to be the answer.

    “One point worth noting is that Blacks in the West are losing the great majority of this ground relative to Whites in the same classrooms, so differential school quality across races does not appear to be the answer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
56 of 56

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

    “The results presented in Tables 2 - 4 maintain the assumption that children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.

    “to the extent our control variables adequately capture a child's environment, the residual gap after including all the covariates would remain constant.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.

    “The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is a nationally representative sample of 21,260 children entering kindergarten in 1998.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Data appendix gives an outdated count of survey points

    Minor

    The main text says information had been gathered at five points and includes spring third grade in its account of the full-sample interviews. The data appendix instead says four points and lists interviews only through spring first grade.

  • White ordinality mean differs between Tables 7 and 8

    Minor

    Table 8 reports the fall-kindergarten White mean for ordinality and sequence as .349, while Table 7 reports .291 as the White mean. In Table 7, .349 is the parenthesized standard deviation.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Phillips, Meredith. 2000. 'Understanding Ethnic Differences in Academic Achievement: Empirical Lessons from National Data.' In David Grissmer and Michael Ross (eds.), Analytic Issues in the Assessment of Student Achievement . pp. 103-132. Wachington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Fryer, R. G.
Affiliations
National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
Corresponding author
Fryer, R. G.
ORCID
Fryer, R. G.
Venue
American Law and Economics Review
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2006-07-13
Volume
8
Issue
2
Pages
249-281
ISSN
  • 1465-7252 (ISSN-L)
  • 1465-7260
DOI
10.1093/aler/ahl003
OpenAlex
W2108478320
Cited by
422
References
16
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 22
FWCI
80.70
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • American Law and Economics Review (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
Keywords
Black-White test score gap, racial achievement gap, early childhood education, first grade, third grade, reading achievement, mathematics achievement, academic trajectories, school quality, Black students, educational inequality

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-29.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-29.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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