The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 55 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 39 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Police Violence and Citizen Crime Reporting in the Black Community
Abstract
High-profile cases of police violence—disproportionately experienced by black men—may present a serious threat to public safety if they lower citizen crime reporting. Using an interrupted time series design, this study analyzes how one of Milwaukee’s most publicized cases of police violence against an unarmed black man, the beating of Frank Jude, affected police-related 911 calls. Controlling for crime, prior call patterns, and several neighborhood characteristics, we find that residents of Milwaukee’s neighborhoods, especially residents of black neighborhoods, were far less likely to report crime after Jude’s beating was broadcast. The effect lasted for over a year and resulted in a total net loss of approximately 22,200 calls for service. Other local and national cases of police violence against unarmed black men also had a significant impact on citizen crime reporting in Milwaukee. Police misconduct can powerfully suppress one of the most basic forms of civic engagement: calling 911 for matters of personal and public safety.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using an interrupted time series of Milwaukee 911 calls, the paper finds that publicized police violence against unarmed black men—especially the Frank Jude beating—sharply reduced citizen crime reporting, particularly in black neighborhoods. The effect lasted over a year and produced an estimated net loss of about 22,200 calls for service.
Key findings
- After the *Milwaukee Journal Sentinel* broke the Frank Jude beating story, police-related 911 calls declined significantly; the effect lasted more than a year and resulted in a net loss of approximately 22,200 calls, with 56% of that loss in black neighborhoods.
- In black neighborhoods, the decline was large and durable, while in white neighborhoods the decline was smaller and dissipated within about a year; black neighborhoods averaged 5.64 calls/week versus 1.7 calls/week in white neighborhoods.
- The six months after Jude’s story (March–August 2005) saw 87 homicides in Milwaukee, a 32% increase relative to the same six-month period in prior and subsequent years.
- Additional cases had mixed effects: Danyall Simpson’s beating and Sean Bell’s killing were followed by significant declines in 911 calls, while Oscar Grant’s killing did not reduce calls in Milwaukee and was followed by an increase.
Methods
- Interrupted time series design with block-group and month fixed effects, using negative binomial regression to model weekly 911 calls at the block-group level.
- Data: every 911 call placed in Milwaukee from March 1, 2004 to December 31, 2010 (N = 1,104,369); analyses focus on 596 block groups and 883,146 calls reporting crime, with controls for reported crime, neighborhood sociodemographic characteristics, and seasonality.
- Main analyses center on the date the Frank Jude story broke (February 6, 2005), with supplemental models for Danyall Simpson, Sean Bell, and Oscar Grant, plus a nonequivalent dependent variable analysis of automobile-accident calls.
Limitations
- The paper states that it relies on administrative records, that Milwaukee is similar to many midsize U.S. cities but highly segregated, and that effects may not be as acute or durable in more integrated cities; it also calls for future research on Hispanic communities.
- Evident from the design: the interrupted time series is observational and cannot definitively establish causality; exposure is assumed to begin when mainstream media broke each story, and concurrent events cannot be fully ruled out, though the automobile-accident analysis helps address general 911 declines.
- The paper notes that unreported crime likely increased post-Jude, which would make the estimated negative effect on crime reporting conservative.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own result · 32 Own interpretation · 17 No basis given · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 6 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the negative linear postintervention slope trend ( weeks post-Jude story ) finds that 911 calls for service declined significantly in the period after the story broke.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect lasted for over a year and resulted in a total net loss of approximately 22,200 calls for service.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the overall trend for total calls (as seen in the weeks pre-Jude story coefficient) is positive and significant, indicating that police-related 911 calls trended slightly upward during the observation period.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The non-significant coefficient for Jude story indicates that the weekly number of 911 calls did not shift abruptly in either direction immediately following the publication of Jude's beating.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other local and national cases of police violence against unarmed black men also had a significant impact on citizen crime reporting in Milwaukee.”
- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 2 · plain
“Supplemental analyses of other local and national cases of police violence against unarmed black men also had an impact on crime reporting in Milwaukee.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 2 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for crime, prior call patterns, and several neighborhood characteristics, we find that residents of Milwaukee's neighborhoods, especially residents of black neighborhoods, were far less likely to report crime after Jude's beating was broadcast.”
- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 2 · plain
“Controlling for several neighborhood characteristics, along with fixed effects for neighborhoods and months, we find that residents of Milwaukee's neighborhoods were far less likely to report crime after Jude's beating was broadcast.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 2 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect lasted for over a year and resulted in a total net loss of approximately 22,200 calls for service.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In an average week, residents in black neighborhoods made 5.64 calls to 911 (min. = 0, max. 41), more than triple the calling rate of residents in white neighborhoods (1.7 calls per week; min. = 0, max. = 17).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Over half of the total loss in 911 calls occurred in black neighborhoods.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, supplemental analyses find that in black neighborhoods, police-related 911 calls were unaffected in the weeks immediately following Jude's beating.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that the police beating of Frank Jude resulted in a net loss of approximately 22,200 911 calls reporting crime the year after Jude's story broke.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With time, however, citizen crime reporting returned to normal levels.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Over half (56 percent) of the total loss in calls occurred in black neighborhoods.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, citizen crime reporting fell significantly in black neighborhoods after publication of the Simpson beating.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, as Figure 4 shows, the spring and summer that followed Jude's story were the deadliest in the seven years observed in our study.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In two of our three additional cases, we observed an association between police officers' use of excessive or deadly force against an unarmed black man and fewer crimes reported to the police.”
plaincorrelationaln = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our study found that only people living in black neighborhoods altered their crime-reporting behavior for a significant period of time after the publication of such events.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found no evidence, however, that the killing of Oscar Grant (in Oakland, California) lowered crime-reporting behavior in Milwaukee.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This uptick in homicides occurred during months in which citizen crime reporting, especially in the black community, fell by significant margins.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The small, positive quadratic time term reveals that the 'Jude effect' diminished over time, with 911 calls eventually returning to expected levels.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As Table 3 shows, 911 calls related to traffic accidents increased during the weeks following Jude's story, net of sociodemographic controls and weather conditions (weekly rainfall and snowfall).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Crime reporting remained significantly lower in black neighborhoods weeks after officers involved in Jude's beating were charged and fired.”
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding holds when examining calls reporting violent crime.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The vast majority of both white and black respondents (90 and 93 percent, respectively) said they would call the police; however, only 35 percent of blacks expected to be taken seriously, compared with 60 percent of whites.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bobo and Thompson 2006 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The legal cynic may report crime just as regularly as the citizen who views the criminal justice system with reverence.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, we model a counterfactual 911 calling trend based on pre-Jude calling and crime patterns, but the gap between estimated and counterfactual calling trends is probably larger than we observed because, post-Jude, unreported crime likely increased.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But they do suggest that police violence may have reverberations that extend well beyond the trauma and tragedy of an individual act-or even the neighborhood and city in which it took place.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People's attitudes toward the criminal justice system might be poor, even misleading, indicators of their real-life dealings with the police.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police misconduct can powerfully suppress one of the most basic forms of civic engagement: calling 911 for matters of personal and public safety.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Breaking the story in mainstream media outlets was what brought the incidents to public light, even if community members did not themselves learn of the incidents through such outlets.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The vast majority of research on citizens' views toward the police and law breaking is based on interviews (e.g., Brunson and Miller 2006; Carr, Napolitano, and Keating 2007) or surveys (e.g., Avakame, Fyfe, and McCoy 1999; Baumer 2002).”
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Numerous studies document stark racial disparities in police maltreatment, finding that black boys and men are disproportionately subject to excessive and sometimes deadly police force, even after accounting for situational factors of the encounter (e.g., resisting arrest) and officer characteristics (e.g., age, training) (Terrill and Reisig 2003).”
- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 1 · plain
“Studies show that police disproportionately use improper and deadly force on black men (Matulia 1982; Worden 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Terrill and Reisig 2003 source
- Not matchedcites Matulia 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Worden 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Keywords · p. 1 · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A linear pre-Jude specification provided a better fit to the data (see Table A1 in the Appendix).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Previous research shows that negative encounters with law enforcement, as well as high-profile cases of police misconduct, contribute to the spread of legal cynicism within black communities (Kirk and Papachristos 2011; Sampson 2012; Weitzer 2002).”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When it comes to relying on and cooperating with the police, what one does might not resemble what one says one will do.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Modeling the time trend allows us to establish a counterfactual for what the calling pattern would have been like in the absence of Frank Jude's story.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More than three months elapsed between Jude's beating and it being reported in the local press.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Some studies document a drop in public approval of the police after publicized cases of police brutality, especially among African Americans (Jefferis et al. 1997; Weitzer 2002).”
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A year later, Spengler and two fellow officers were tried and acquitted of all charges by an all-white jury (Stingl 2006).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Stingl 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If neighborhoods experienced a concomitant increase in crime and decrease in citizen crime reporting, then any negative estimate of the effect of Jude's beating on citizen crime reporting is conservative.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The vast majority of both white and black respondents (90 and 93 percent, respectively) said they would call the police; however, only 35 percent of blacks expected to be taken seriously, compared with 60 percent of whites.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bobo and Thompson 2006 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Interviews and surveys can serve as effective methods to capture individuals' attitudes and cultural scripts, but studies show surveys are less reliable when it comes to measuring interactions with the police (Rosenfeld, Jacobs, and Wright 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rosenfeld, Jacobs, and Wright 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for crime, prior call patterns, and several neighborhood characteristics, we find that residents of Milwaukee's neighborhoods, especially residents of black neighborhoods, were far less likely to report crime after Jude's beating was broadcast.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Our models also include weekly crime counts to rule out the possibility that the observed levels of 911 calls are nothing more than an indicator of neighborhood crime levels (Kirk and Matsuda 2011; Klinger 1997).”
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As our main case study, we examine one of Milwaukee's most publicized moments of police brutality: the 2004 beating of an unarmed black man, Frank Jude, by white police officers.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The evidence for this study does not rely on accounts of past behavior or projections of future action but on the complete universe of every crime reported in Milwaukee over the course of seven years.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the long run, such episodes likely contribute to that very cynicism by being incorporated into the community's collective memory.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This study, however, shows that in predominantly black neighborhoods, publicized cases of police violence can have a community-wide impact on crime reporting that transcends individual encounters.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also found that it does not take a major or local event to reduce crime reporting.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The beating of Frank Jude had a much more substantial effect on citizen crime reporting in black neighborhoods than in white neighborhoods.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the short run, publicized episodes of excessive police violence against unarmed black men can activate legal cynicism within the black community to diminish residents' cooperation with law enforcement.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Local incidents of police violence, when publicized in the press, dampen crime reporting in Milwaukee.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Accordingly, residents who witness or are victimized by crime have little recourse other than to call 911”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Venkatesh 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once the story of Frank Jude's beating appeared in the press, Milwaukee residents, especially people in black neighborhoods, were less likely to call the police, including to report violent crime.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe collective memory explains why we found 'the Jude effect' to be particularly strong in black neighborhoods.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Major episodes of police violence against unarmed black men covered by the press can interface with a general sentiment of legal cynicism within the black community to drive behavior, drawing out action from attitudes.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect of police violence on citizen crime reporting documented in this study is considerably lengthy by comparison.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In undermining public safety efforts by dampening citizen crime reporting and inviting legal cynicism, police violence is a clear example of this.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This study shows that publicized cases of police violence against unarmed black men have a clear and significant impact on citizen crime reporting.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found some evidence, then, that highprofile cases of unarmed black men being assaulted or killed by law-enforcement officers may affect citizen crime reporting in cities far removed from the site of the incident.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The effect of this trend on crime reduction has been underwhelming (Travis, Western, and Redburn 2014)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Travis, Western, and Redburn 2014 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings of this study promote a more sociological view of the issue by suggesting that no act of police violence is an isolated incident, in both cause and consequence.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Episodes of police wrongdoing are one ramification of a broader trend within the criminal justice system that in recent decades has promoted aggressive law enforcement and severe sentencing.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 34
- Probably not a substantial claim. 35
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Our findings demonstrate that the media plays a crucial role in this process, not only by raising awareness of episodes of police violence but also by addressing basic questions about such episodes. What exactly happened? What was the race of the victim and police officer? Was the victim armed? When these questions are addressed, either by professional reporters (as in Frank Jude's case) or 'citiz”
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, the killing of Oscar Grant in Oakland, California, did not result in a decline in police-related 911 calls in Milwaukee. In fact, 911 calls increased in the weeks following Grant's death”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The dampening effect of the Jude beating on citizen crime reporting persisted for months, resulting in a net loss of more than 20,000 911 calls.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the six months that followed Jude's story (March to August 2005), 87 homicides occurred in Milwaukee, representing a 32 percent increase in murders relative to the same six-month period in previous and subsequent years.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The quadratic term is positive but non-significant in the black-neighborhoods subsample but positive and significant in the white-neighborhoods subsample, indicating that the initial decline in calls diminished with time in white but not black neighborhoods.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For comparison purposes, there were approximately 110,000 policerelated 911 calls from all Milwaukee neighborhoods during this time period.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analyses of the Frank Jude beating found that crime reporting eventually returned to typical levels, but it took roughly one year before they did-and even longer in black neighborhoods.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In black neighborhoods, the decline in 911 calls is large and durable, with citizen crime reporting dropping and staying lower than expected for over a year after the story broke.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both subsamples, the change in the intercept (denoted by the coefficient Jude story ) is not significant, but the linear post-story trend is significant and negative, with the effect appearing larger in white neighborhoods.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Calls for violent crime declined significantly following Jude's story before eventually returning to pre-intervention levels.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With respect to reporting violent crime in particular, calls declined temporarily in white but not black neighborhoods after the story broke.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In white neighborhoods, by contrast, a small decline in 911 calls followed Jude's story, but the effect dissipated rapidly as 911 calls eventually surpassed the counterfactual line within a year's time.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Milwaukee residents issued fewer calls for service after the local press reported the assault of Danyall Simpson by a white police officer, an assault less severe than Jude's, and they were less likely to call the police after the killing of Sean Bell (in Queens, New York) made national headlines.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with our findings from the Frank Jude case, 911 calls reporting crime declined significantly following the breaking of Danyall Simpson's beating. Both the level and slope of crime reporting declined.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After Sean Bell's killing made national headlines, the level of 911 calls declined significantly-in all Milwaukee neighborhoods and in black neighborhoods, particularly-however, we do not observe a significant change in the slope of the post-story time trend.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the number of calls reporting crime declined substantially in the wake of Jude's beating, relative to the counterfactual, and did not return to expected levels for more than a year.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By including a quadratic term for the post-Jude time period, we are effectively testing for a discontinuous effect of the Jude beating on 911 calls as well as modeling the possibility that 911 calls eventually drift back to the pre-Jude trend.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During that time, there were no public protests; unrest did follow the news story.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, a close reading of ethnographic reports reveals that the code's manifestations may not be as uniform as is often believed.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Month fixed effects control for seasonal variation in crime and crime reporting, as calls peak in the summer and slump in the winter.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Citizens, many of them black, took to the streets in protest.”
plaindirectn = 100- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“This suggests that although knowledge of an incident of police violence may spread through personal networks close to the victim, those networks are not expansive enough to affect the crime-reporting behavior of an entire community in a compressed timespan (see Andrews and Biggs 2006).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrews and Biggs 2006 source
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The quadratic post-Jude specification fits best.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Additionally, we replicate our analyses on the number of weekly calls for automobile accidents, a 'nonequivalent dependent variable' that should have been unaffected by the Jude beating (Shadish, Cook, and Campbell 2002:184).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish, Cook, and Campbell 2002:184
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although sizeable racial differences were observed in peoples' attitudes toward the police, respondents were virtually identical in their surmised actions with law enforcement.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, we examine if citizen crime reporting in Milwaukee was affected by three other cases of police violence against unarmed black men: the 2007 assault of Danyall Simpson in Milwaukee; the 2006 killing of Sean Bell in Queens, New York; and the 2009 killing of Oscar Grant in Oakland, California.”
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Simpson case was covered in the local press; the other two cases were major stories in the national press.”
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Legal cynicism is widely believed to result in citizens withdrawing from the police, particularly by refusing to report crime to the authorities (Baumer 2002).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumer 2002 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using an interrupted time series design, this study analyzes how one of Milwaukee's most publicized cases of police violence against an unarmed black man, the beating of Frank Jude, affected police-related 911 calls.”
- Also stated in: § Methods · p. 6 · plain
“To assess the effect of the Frank Jude beating on citizen crime reporting, we use an interrupted time series design with block-group and month fixed effects.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § Methods · p. 6 · plain
In the paper
“To account for the structural characteristics commonly associated with neighborhood-level crime (Land, McCall, and Cohen 1990), we draw on U.S. Census data and calculate the following measures at the block-group level: percent of the population that is nonHispanic black; percent of the population that is Latino; percent of households below the poverty line; and percent of households that rent.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Land, McCall, and Cohen 1990 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because calls related to car accidents are typically made to report injuries or for insurance purposes, having little to do with trust in law enforcement, we expect them to be unaffected by the incident.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies are primarily descriptive, and they do not control for crime rates.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, in addition to analyzing all block groups, we also estimate models separately for black and white neighborhoods.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies that measure attitudes toward the police and hypothesized citizen crime reporting find racial differences in the former but not the latter.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Later that year, eight officers were federally charged. Seven were convicted (Borowski 2007; Diedrich 2007a).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Borowski 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Diedrich 2007a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We use a negative binomial specification to account for the skewness of the 911 calling pattern, with many block groups reporting few or no 911 calls in a given week.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Residents who refuse to seek help from the police are thought to rely on the code to dole out sanctions through violence or other informal means (Kirk and Papachristos 2011; Sampson 2012).”
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Calling 911 to report a crime is the most basic act of reliance on (and engagement with) the legal system in contemporary society (Manning 1988; Reiss 1992).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Manning 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Reiss 1992 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As our main case study, we examine one of Milwaukee's most publicized moments of police brutality: the 2004 beating of an unarmed black man, Frank Jude, by white police officers.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We include block-group and month fixed effects in our models.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also foundational to public safety, being the first and among the most important acts of cooperation with the police, who in many cases can respond to criminal activity only if it is reported.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But on February 6, 2005, Sunday readers of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel were met with the following front-page headline: 'Police Suspected in Man's Beating' (Diedrich 2005b).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Diedrich 2005b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Block-group fixed effects control for all time-invariant block-group-specific factors potentially correlated with 911 calls.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A month later, nine officers were fired and four others disciplined.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Recent studies find that one's attitude toward the police can be influenced by vicarious experiences of one's social ties (Brunson 2007; Rosenbaum et al. 2005) and by repeated exposure to news reports of misconduct (Weitzer and Tuch 2005).”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Four days after the story broke, more than 100 people marched in front of the District Attorney's office (Nunnally 2005).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Nunnally 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The story told of the beating and the subsequent obstructionism and noncooperation by the police: 'Authorities knew right away who was involved, but more than three months later no one has been charged or even arrested.'”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If legal cynicism increased after the media broke the story of Frank Jude's beating, then it is likely that crime also increased during this time period.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, news of such incidents spread through various channels only after major media outlets broke the story.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In racial composition, population size, and unemployment rate, Milwaukee is similar to many midsize U.S. cities (Desmond, Gershenson, and Kiviat 2015).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Desmond, Gershenson, and Kiviat 2015 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings show that the observed decline in police-related 911 calls that followed Jude's story was not a product of a general decline in all 911 calls; rather, the decline was specific to crime reporting.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Such incidents belong to a centuries-old tradition of state-sanctioned assaults on the black body-from slavery and lynching campaigns to urban riots and mass incarceration (Muller 2012; Patterson 1998)an ugly fact that African Americans are more likely to recognize and dread.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Muller 2012 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patterson 1998
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect of Frank Jude's beating on citizen crime reporting matched the severity of the incident, but instances of police violence less extreme by comparison, as well as events that took place thousands of miles away, still appear to have had an impact on crime reporting in Milwaukee.”
hedgedcorrelationaln = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“one implication of this study is that should we wish to understand why some crime goes unreported in the black community, we should try to understand residents' collective memory regarding police violence in their city and others.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that high-profile cases of excessive police force constitute a severe breach in the social contract that exists between citizens and the criminal justice system.”
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within black neighborhoods, the impact of police violence on citizen crime reporting results not only from African Americans identifying with the victim but also interpreting the moment of victimization in terms that articulate the nation's racial heritage.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By extension, we would not expect an equivalent response in predominantly white or Latino neighborhoods after publicized episodes of police violence against unarmed white or Latino citizens.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Owing to the legacy of racism in the United States, many members of the black community perceive an assault of a black man by white police officers as an assault on the black community writ large, activating a collective response.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important implication of this finding is that publicized cases of police violence not only threaten the legitimacy and reputation of law enforcement; they also-by driving down 911 calls-thwart the suppression of law breaking, obstruct the application of justice, and ultimately make cities as a whole, and the black community in particular, less safe.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individual instances of institutional failure can have aggregate and lasting consequences that vitiate police-community relations and thwart crime-reduction efforts.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Breaking the story in mainstream media outlets was what brought the incidents to public light, even if community members did not themselves learn of the incidents through such outlets.
“In each case we analyze, we assume that breaking the story in mainstream media outlets was what brought the incidents to public light, even if community members did not themselves learn of the incidents through such outlets.”
The paper relies on this without support.
High-profile cases of police violence against unarmed citizens can undermine the legitimacy of legal authority.
“High-profile cases of police violence against unarmed citizens can undermine the legitimacy of legal authority.”
The paper relies on this without support.
911 calls are a valid measure of citizen crime reporting.
“Model 1 takes as its outcome all 911 calls reporting crime recorded in Milwaukee between March 1, 2004 and December 31, 2005.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Milwaukee residents learned of the Frank Jude beating and other publicized cases at the times used as intervention dates.
“in the wake of Milwaukeeans learning of Jude's beating”
The paper relies on this without support.
The press coverage dates accurately mark the onset of public awareness for each incident.
“following the reporting of each incident (for Simpson: February 18, 2007; for Bell: November 27, 2006; for Grant: January 8, 2009).”
The paper relies on this without support.
No other crime-specific concurrent event caused the decline in crime reporting after Jude's story.
“These findings show that the observed decline in police-related 911 calls that followed Jude's story was not a product of a general decline in all 911 calls; rather, the decline was specific to crime reporting.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Milwaukee has high levels of racial segregation.
“Milwaukee has high levels of racial segregation.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“When police lack legitimacy, residents are less likely to contact police or cooperate with their investigations (4, 5).”
From A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy (2019) · cites this paper as [5]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Calls for Service Data · p. 5
“designate a neighborhood as black or white if these respective groups account for at least two-thirds of neighborhood residents.”
§ References · p. 20
“Black/white neighborhoods are defined as those in which at least 65 percent of residents are black/white.”
Citations
Cites
(2002) · Cited by 13,211
Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001 · Cited by 10,647
Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City
Halnon, K. B., & Anderson, E. (2001) · Teaching Sociology · doi:10.2307/1318956 · Cited by 3,614
Code of the street: decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-2223 · Cited by 2,365
Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect
Sampson, R. J., & Wilson, W. J. (2012) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226733883.001.0001 · Cited by 2,214
Framing as a Theory of Media Effects
Scheufele, D. A. (1999) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1999.tb02784.x · Cited by 2,179
The American Journal of Sociology
F., C. B. (1939) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.96.1.252 · Cited by 1,923
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Harrison, D. A., & Treviño, L. K. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017103 · Cited by 1,690
Sampson, R. J., & Bartusch, D. J. (1998) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/827739 · Cited by 1,441
Great American city: Chicago and the enduring neighborhood effect
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-1187 · Cited by 1,433
Research works printed but not linked: 22
- Associated Press . 2009. “Police Crack Down after Train Shooting Protests, Businesses Smashed, Cars Set Blaze in Oakland after Transit Cop Killed Man.” January 8.
- Barton Gina, 2006, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Board of Fire and Police Commissioners of the City of Milwaukee, 2008, In the Matter of the Appeal of Police Officer Zoe Jackson from MPD Personnel Order Number 2007-184
- Borowski Greg, 2007, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Buckley Cara, 2006, New York Times
- Chideya Farai, 2009, National Public Radio
- Diedrich John, 2005, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Diedrich John, 2007, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Diedrich John, 2007, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Diedrich John, 2012, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Francisco Stacey, 2006, CNN
- McKinley Jesse, 2009, New York Times
- McLaughlin Eliott, 2009, CNN
- Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . 2007. “Timeline of Events in Frank Jude Beating Case.” July 27.
- Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . 2012. “Timeline: Deaths in Milwaukee Police Custody, Proposed Reforms.” October 27.
- Nunnally Derrick, 2005, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Stingl Jim, 2006, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
- Wilson Michael, 2006, New York Times
- Brown Ethan, 2007, Snitch: Informants, Cooperators, and the Corruption of Justice
- Matulia Kenneth, 1982, A Balance of Forces: National Survey of Police Deadly Force
- Pew Research Center. 2012. “News about Trayvon Martin Case Still Top Story.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for People and the Press.
- Pew Research Center. 2014. “Stark Racial Divisions in Reactions to Ferguson Police Shooting.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for People and the Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1821204116 · Cited by 916
Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31130-9 · Cited by 746
A field experiment on community policing and police legitimacy
Peyton, K., Sierra-Arévalo, M., & Rand, D. G. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1910157116 · Cited by 254
Situational Trust: How Disadvantaged Mothers Reconceive Legal Cynicism
Bell, M. C. (2016) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12200 · Cited by 250
Aggressive policing and the educational performance of minority youth
Legewie, J., & Fagan, J. (2019) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122419826020 · Cited by 212
Metadata
- Authors
- Desmond, M., Papachristos, A. V., & Kirk, D. S.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Yale University (US)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Desmond, Matthew
- Venue
- American Sociological Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-09-29
- Volume
- 81
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 857-876
- ISSN
- 0003-1224 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-8271
- OpenAlex
- W2525526196
- Semantic Scholar
- 1609c3ab3d61703f7684473e780883fb9f3ee3a2
- Cited by
- 541
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 229.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Sociological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Keywords
- police brutality, crime reporting, 911 calls, Black communities, police misconduct, citizen participation, media coverage of police, Milwaukee, racial disparities in policing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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