The DOI matches its Crossref record; 73 of the 74 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 54 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
What Does It Take to Implement Change Successfully? A Study of the Behaviors of Successful Change Leaders
Abstract
This article seeks to explore the impact of leaders’ behaviors on the successful implementation of change. A qualitative empirical study of change leader behaviors based on interviews with leaders from 33 organizations is presented. Analyses of the data indicated that leader-centric behaviors have an adverse impact on change implementation. In contrast, behaviors that may be described as being more facilitating and engaging are positively related to change success. Four critical behavior sets are identified. It was evident that leaders who experienced the highest levels of success deployed all four of the behavior sets and minimal presence of leader-centric behaviors. The study findings provide support for some of the recent research into change leadership. However, they provide a more detailed picture of the nature of behaviors associated with successful change implementation. The article concludes with a brief discussion of limitations and areas for further research.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a qualitative study of 65 change stories from leaders in 33 organizations, leader-centric “Shaping” behaviors were adversely related to change implementation success, while facilitating and engaging “Framcap” behaviors were positively related. Leaders with the highest success deployed all four Framcap behavior sets and showed minimal presence of leader-centric behaviors.
Key findings
- Leader-centric behaviors (Shaping) had an adverse impact on change implementation, whereas more facilitating and engaging behaviors were positively related to change success; four critical behavior sets were identified: Attractor, Edge and Tension, Container, and Transforming Space (together labeled “Framcap”).
- Less successful changes showed a far higher proportion of dominant Shaping behaviors and relatively low Framcap behaviors; more successful changes showed dominance of Framcap behaviors, with the most successful group generally showing limited Shaping.
- The most successful changes were associated with a broadly balanced deployment of all four Framcap subcategories; in the top five versus bottom five stories, the top stories deployed all four subcategories, while bottom stories showed negative manifestations of Framcap behaviors when strong Shaping was present.
- The overall sample comprised 65 change stories from leaders in 33 organizations; 4 stories were excluded for insufficient behavioral data, leaving a distribution of 43 private-sector, 9 public-sector, and 9 “third sector” stories.
Methods
- Qualitative empirical study using interviews with senior leaders from 33 organizations; each leader described a change story in which they played a significant role. Interviews lasted 1 to 1.5 hours, were recorded and transcribed, and were supplemented by detailed field notes.
- A critical incident approach was used to reduce retrospective smoothing; the coding frame combined prior Higgs and Rowland behavior sets (Shaping, Framing, Creating) with four new Framcap categories (Attractor, Edge and Tension, Container, Transforming Space).
- Transcripts were double-coded, with a third coder for adjudication when coder alignment was below 90%; success was assessed by a panel combining leader self-assessment, line-manager ratings, and an expert team review. Analyses compared success categories (top 20%, next 40%, lower 20%, lowest 20%), top five versus bottom five stories, and top five stories scoring highest on all four Framcap sets with limited Shaping.
Limitations
- Paper-stated: the purposive sample introduces possible respondent bias; success ratings are skewed with underrepresentation of unsuccessful changes; ensuring a robust and reliable success measure was difficult; and causality is unclear.
- Paper-stated: analyses failed to show contextual differences affecting the leadership-behavior patterns linked to success, but the authors cannot be certain results were not influenced by differences in change type or content; goal congruence and resulting leadership behaviors could not be examined.
- Evident from the text: the study relies on retrospective accounts, which the authors acknowledge and attempt to ameliorate through critical incident probing; the success measure includes self-assessment alongside line-manager and expert ratings, so self-report bias may remain.
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Claims the paper makes
32 Own result · 14 No full text of the sources · 13 Own interpretation · 10 Not checked yet · 8 Own method · 7 Sources not found · 1 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Turning to the leadership behaviors, it is again evident from Table 3 that the less successful changes showed a far higher proportion of dominant Shaping behaviors and a relatively low proportion of 'Framcap' behaviors.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This analysis prompted a more detailed review of the transcripts of the most successful change stories within which there was evidence that leaders were deploying all four of these subcategories.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These were explored using an overall sample that comprised 65 stories relating to change initiatives provided by leaders from 33 organizations.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although analyses of the data failed to show any contextual differences that affected the patterns of leadership behavior associated with the success of the change”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This self-awareness appeared to be visibly demonstrated in their behaviors.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it does indicate that the more successful changes are associated with a broadly balanced deployment of all four of the 'Framcap' subcategories.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, the more successful changes showed a dominance of 'Framcap' behaviors.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, the more successful change initiatives tended to evidence higher proportions of Master and Emergent change approaches.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was evident that leaders who experienced the highest levels of success deployed all four of the behavior sets and minimal presence of leader-centric behaviors.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Analyses of the data indicated that leader-centric behaviors have an adverse impact on change implementation.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 9
- Probably not a substantial claim. 29
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In doing this, they noticed repeating patterns of behavior and were able to draw others attention to these as and when they noticed them being played out.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The transcripts indicated that these leaders reflected on their practice, noticed their impulses, and considered what they could have done differently.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, there are examples within the less successful changes in which more complex views of change were encountered (i.e., Master or Emergent) that had either combined the approach with dominant Shaping behavior or, if not, had Shaping behaviors representing a relatively high proportion of overall behaviors.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From this analysis, we found that the following elements were present and that these tended to differentiate these successful leaders from others in the sample: 1. They were very self-aware and appeared to be conscious of how to use their presence in the change process.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In reviewing the transcripts, it was interesting to note that three of the four components of 'Framcap' had a very positive emotional feel to them.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The sample comprised leaders drawn from private sector, public sector, and 'third sector' organizations (e.g., nongovernmental organizations, voluntary organizations, charity organizations, etc.).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The distribution of the stories was as follows: private sector, 43; public sector, 9; and 'third sector,' 9.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Respondents in all the organizations were at a senior level, being responsible for a significant part of the organization's business or activities and playing a major role in the implementation of the change that formed the basis of their change stories.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They remained in tune with the bigger picture within which the change was positioned and ensured that their team considered their actions and plans in the light of this.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is interesting to note that the above findings do tend to follow such a ratio.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although the more successful changes in this study were those in which the dominant behaviors were largely enabling (i.e., 'Framcap'), a number of the stories did contain a notable component of Shaping behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“To establish a higher level of reliability in the coding process, all transcripts were double-coded (Miles & Huberman, 1984).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miles & Huberman, 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the data appear to provide positive answers to the two research questions.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
- Rests on an assumption: The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study findings provide support for some of the recent research into change leadership.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“It has been argued that the context of change is an important one within which to examine the impact and effectiveness of leadership behaviors”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, they provide a more detailed picture of the nature of behaviors associated with successful change implementation.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In the course of the analysis, four change stories were excluded due to a lack of sufficiently clear behavioral data in the transcripts (Miles & Huberman, 1984; Moser & Kalton, 1972).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miles & Huberman, 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Moser & Kalton, 1972
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, summaries of coding from each pair of coders were reviewed by two separate researchers to check for any apparent consistent biases in their use of codes.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“It has been asserted that the role and behaviors of leaders in a change context per se has been an area that is lacking in empirical research”
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“They identified five broad areas of leadership competency associated with successful change implementation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Higgs & Rowland (2000, 2005)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is a widely held view (in large supported by empirical research) that attempts to implement organizational change are predominantly unsuccessful”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Beer, 2000
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Elrod & Tippett, 2002 source
- Not matchedcites Kotter, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To obtain an indication of the degree of change success, a panel assessment was employed. This entailed combining ratings of success provided by the leaders interviewed (self-assessment), the line managers accountable for the change project, and an assessment conducted by an 'expert' team who reviewed the overall change story”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“they suggest that reductionism in research into change fails to elucidate any significant or generalizable lessons.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pettigrew et al. (2001) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Pettigrew (1997) highlights both the paucity of empirical studies and the dominance of U.S.-based thinking, cases, and data.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Pettigrew (1997)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To ameliorate such limitations, the researchers adopted a critical incident approach to the interviews (Flanagan, 1954).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flanagan, 1954 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where a degree of coder alignment of less than 90% arose, the transcript went to a third coder for adjudication of differences.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Pettigrew et al. (2001) have highlighted the importance of contextual considerations in arriving at a deeper level of understanding of how change works (or does not) in practice.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pettigrew et al. (2001) source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This does tend to provide further support for the earlier findings of Higgs and Rowland (2005) as well as for the more general view that programmatic change is largely unsuccessful (e.g., Eisenbach et al., 1999; Stace, 1996; Wheatley, 1993).”
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed they identified that leaders who had a notable combination of the 'Framing' and 'Creating' behavioral sets appeared to be particularly successful in implementing change across most of the contexts examined.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Higgs & Rowland (2005) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The need to move away from a leader-centric approach to change as contextual complexity increases is also argued by many researchers in the field”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kramer, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Senge, 1997
- Not matchedcites Wheatley, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The negative impact on change success of leader-centric behaviors (Shaping) has been reinforced whereas the more enabling behaviors (e.g., 'Framcap') appear to facilitate successful change implementation.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Both Grobman (2005) and Waldrop (1992) point out that there is an optimal point in a system when stabilizing and destabilizing forces are in a form of dynamic balance.”
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the broader leadership literature, the move to a more enabling approach is seen to be related to the emotional content of leader-follower exchange”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gill, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Higgs, 2003 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Others have commented that in the more complex context within which organizations are now operating, effective leadership is that which enables others”
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The significance of context has been identified as an important omission in much of the change literature (Pettigrew, 2000; Pettigrew et al., 2001).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Pettigrew, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pettigrew et al., 2001 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, because of the nature of the success assessment, it was difficult to ensure the success measure for each change story is sufficiently robust and reliable.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
This research, which is primarily quantitative, generally fails to link directly with the change literature.
“This research, which is primarily quantitative, does, however, generally fail to link directly with the change literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In examining the leader's role and behavior in the change process, few studies have moved beyond generic descriptions.
“In examining the leader's role and behavior in the change process, few studies have moved beyond generic descriptions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The panel's final success ratings are a valid measure of change success.
“Final panel success rating”
The paper relies on this without support.
The change stories and transcripts accurately reflect the leaders' actual behaviors and change initiatives.
“These were explored using an overall sample that comprised 65 stories relating to change initiatives provided by leaders from 33 organizations.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Findings · p. 14
“| NC2 | 4 | Master | 31.25 | 12.50 | 18.75 | 37.50 | Creating |”
§ Findings · p. 12
“The final column shows the dominant leadership factor present in the change.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Findings · p. 13
“| NC3 | 3.33 | Emergent | 17.65 | 0.00 | 5.88 | 76.47 | Creating |”
§ Findings · p. 12
“The final column shows the dominant leadership factor present in the change.”
Citations
Cites
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Fredrickson, B. L. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218 · Cited by 18,025
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The critical incident technique.
Flanagan, J. C. (1954) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0061470 · Cited by 8,191
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Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (2005) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0133 · Cited by 6,943
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Morse, J. M. (1996) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3999(96)00056-6 · Cited by 5,613
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Research works printed but not linked: 16
- Conner D., 1999, Leading at the edge of chaos
- Finkelstein S., 1996, Strategic leadership—Top executives and their influence on organizations
- Goffee R., 2000, Harvard Business Review, 63
- Hambrick D. C., 1988, Executive effectiveness. Concepts and methods for studying top managers, 3
- Higgs M., Paper presented at the First Applied Positive Psychology Conference
- Higgs M. J., 2006, Organisations and People, 13, 23
- Jaworski J., 2000, Synchronicity
- Kets de Vries M., 1995, Life and death in the executive fast lane
- Kotter J. P., 1996, Leading change
- Kouzes J. R., 1998, Encouraging the heart
- Kramer R. J., 2005, Developing global leaders: Enhancing competencies and accelerating the expatriate experience
- Miles M. B., 1984, Analyzing qualitative data: A source book for new methods
- Pettigrew A. M., 1997, Advancement in organizational behavior: Essays in honour of D. S. Pugh, 277
- Pettigrew A. M., 2000, Breaking the code of change, 243
- Seligman M. E. P., 2002, Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment
- Senge P. M., 1997, Harvard Business Review, 75, 30
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–135 of 135
A survey of probation officers' opinions: Risk assessments
Canty, K. K. (2015) · ScholarWorks (Walden University)
Sharma, R. M., Sahoo, C. K., Das, S., et al. (2014)
Higgs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32637-5_7
Self-citationA Functional Analysis Of Leader Behavior In A Behavioral Health Setting
White, J. D. (2016) · DUNE - DigitalUNE (University of New England)
Influencing Behavior During Planned Culture Change: A Participatory Action Research Case Study
Valentine, M. (2016) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
The role of leadership in change management
Hayes, J. (2014) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-28902-5_9
Lees, C. S. (2019) · Advances in business strategy and competitive advantage book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-6155-2.ch026
Leading a National School of Character Through the Lens of Organizational Change
Chapin, M. R. (2019)
Higgs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32637-5_1
Self-citationEhsan, S. M. A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_4332-1
Higgs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32637-5_12
Self-citationThe role of leadership in change management
Hayes, J. (2018) · doi:10.1057/978-1-352-00132-7_9
Hastings, B. J., & Schwarz, G. M. (2022) · BMJ Leader · doi:10.1136/leader-2022-000598
Autonomy and Empowerment for Middle Managers in Jamaican Local (Municipal) Authorities
Roache, D. A. M., Thomson, S. B., & Muschette, R. O. (2022) · Advances in logistics, operations, and management science book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-4331-6.ch008
Ehsan, S. M. A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-66252-3_4332
Deviana, R. B., & Hendarsjah, H. (2023) · International Journal of Economics Business and Management Research · doi:10.51505/ijebmr.2023.7507
“As is known, leaders have a central role in determining employee reactions to change ( Higgs & Rowland, 2011).”
Malambe, B., & Toendepi, J. (2023) · African Journal of Employee Relations · doi:10.25159/2664-3731/10659
Organizational Renewal during Crisis: Impact of CEO Succession and SHRM as Change Agents
Ramachandran, I., Badrinarayanan, V. A., & Clark, K. (2023) · Journal of Organizational Change Management · doi:10.1108/jocm-01-2026-0042
MECHA, F. K., & NJOROGE, D. J. (2022) · Strategic Journal of Business & Change Management · doi:10.61426/sjbcm.v9i2.2249
Developing Change Competencies
Abildgaard, J. S., Nielsen, K. M., & Olsen, E. L. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009086721.013 · Cited by 2
Amel, E. L., Manning, C. M., Daus, C. S., & Quinn, M. (2023) · Psychology and our planet · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50555-3_8 · Cited by 1
Okereka, O. P., & Okolie, U. C. (2024) · Public Administration Issues · doi:10.17323/1999-5431-2024-0-5-130-145
Higgs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48970-9_1
Self-citationHiggs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48970-9_7
Self-citationHiggs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48970-9_14
Self-citationCowden, C. H., & Zaar, S. (2024) · Journal of Organizational Psychology · doi:10.33423/jop.v24i4.7401
“…managing internal and external information, encouraging active participation, formalizing activities, showing concern for individuals who have trouble with the change, and implementing rites and ceremonies (Battilana et al., 2010; Herold et al., 2008; Higgs & Rowland, 2011; Szabla, 2007).”
Institutional Change and Administration on the Block
Dempsey, N. (2024) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-7471-5_11
Effects of Different Leadership Styles on Workers in Ukrainian Non-Profit Organisations
Кайтанджян, Г., Montes, F. J. L., & Burín, A. M. R. G. (2025) · Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly · doi:10.1177/08997640251375971
“According to some research, ‘enabling’ and ‘engaged’ manager behaviours are the most successful and ‘controlling’ behaviours the least beneficial for organisations transforming (Higgs & Rowland, 2011).”
Dark Leadership in Managing Change and Transformation
Bulkan, S., & Higgs, M. J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-97103-7_5
Self-citationThe Changing Leadership Landscape
Bulkan, S., & Higgs, M. J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-97103-7_1
Self-citationDesigning Effective Behavioral Change Strategies: An Evidence-Based FrameworkPreprint
Westover, J. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5696782
The Dynamics of Public Sector Transformation
Ntalakos, A., & Soklis, G. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-3526-1.ch007
Kovacevic, M. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10013003/v1
Metadata
- Authors
- Higgs, M., & Rowland, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Transcend Consultancy, London, UK
- Corresponding author
- Higgs, Malcolm
- ORCID
- Higgs, Malcolm
- Venue
- The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-04-11
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 309-335
- ISSN
- 0021-8863 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6879
- OpenAlex
- W2097319786
- Semantic Scholar
- ae70796c9d26df4f893f5993b669c698d951461f
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 11.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Organizational Change and Leadership
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Organizational Management and Change
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Leadership and Management in Organizations
- Keywords
- change leadership, organizational change, change implementation, leadership behavior, change success
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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