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Historical Prevalence of Infectious Diseases Within 230 Geopolitical Regions: A Tool for Investigating Origins of Culture
Abstract
Regional differences in disease prevalence are associated with a wide array of cross-cultural differences. However, the complex relationships among culture, disease, and other ecological variables remain underinvestigated. Future research into the origins of cultural differences will benefit from the availability of a numerical index identifying the extent to which infectious diseases have been historically prevalent within regions defined by geopolitical borders. This article introduces such an index. This index is based on disease prevalence data obtained from old epidemiological atlases and is calculated for 230 geopolitical regions (mostly nations) around the world.
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“Other recent cross-national studies showed that collectivism, autocracy, traditional gender roles (women's subordination relative to men's higher status), and women's traditional sexual restrictiveness and continence are values that positively covary with one another, and occur in nations with high prevalence of infectious disease.”
From Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity (2012) · cites this paper as Murray & Schaller 2010
In the citing paper
“Also, the antipoles of each of the values - individualism (hence, liberalism), democracy, and women's political rights, freedom, and increased participation in casual sex - are a positively covarying set of values and are found in countries with relatively low parasite-stress”
From Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity (2012) · cites this paper as Murray & Schaller 2010
In the citing paper
“This measure is internally reliable; across a worldwide sample of 160 countries, the 9-item index has Cronbach's alpha = .84”
From Pathogens and Politics: Further Evidence That Parasite Prevalence Predicts Authoritarianism (2013) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“previous analyses reveal that all four variables are predicted by measures of parasite stress [7], [29].”
From Pathogens and Politics: Further Evidence That Parasite Prevalence Predicts Authoritarianism (2013) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“Additional analyses revealed that country-level differences in authoritarian governance were even more strongly predicted by a measure of historical (rather than modern-day) parasite prevalence [29]”
From Pathogens and Politics: Further Evidence That Parasite Prevalence Predicts Authoritarianism (2013) · cites this paper as [29]
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MethodResultInfluentialHealth and the avoidance of macroparasites: a preliminary cross-cultural study
Prokop, P., Uşak, M., & Fančovičová, J. (2009) · Journal of Ethology · doi:10.1007/s10164-009-0195-3 · Cited by 52
“We used a set of parasites similar to those used in prior research (Gangestad et al. 2006; Fincher and Thornhill 2008; Schaller and Muray 2009).”
MethodA Genetic Component to National Differences in Happiness
Minkov, M., & Bond, M. H. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9712-y · Cited by 53
“Our historical pathogen prevalence data are from Murray and Schaller (2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Socioecological-Genetic Framework of Culture and Personality: Their Roots, Trends, and Interplay
Lu, J. G., Benet‐Martínez, V., & Wang, L. C. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-032631 · Cited by 58
Religious conservatism: an evolutionarily evoked disease-avoidance strategy
Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & Ventis, W. L. (2012) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2012.695514 · Cited by 53
“…openness to experience, and individualism/collectivism, suggesting that disease exposure promotes the adoption of culturally conservative values which function as disease-avoidant defense mechanisms (Fincher, Thornhill, Murray, & Schaller, 2008; Murray & Schaller, 2010; Schaller & Murray, 2008).”
BackgroundHygiene and the world distribution of Alzheimer’s disease
Fox, M. M., Knapp, L. A., Andrews, P. W., & Fincher, C. L. (2013) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eot015 · Cited by 50
“Murray and Schaller [54] assessed historical disease prevalence for the years 1944–61.”
BackgroundParasitical cultures? The cultural origins of institutions and development
Maseland, R. (2013) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-013-9089-x · Cited by 49
Explaining illness with evil: pathogen prevalence fosters moral vitalism
Bastian, B. B., Vauclair, C., Loughnan, S., Bain, P. G., Ashokkumar, A., Becker, M., Bilewicz, M., Collier‐Baker, E., Crespo, C., Eastwick, P. W., et al. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.1576 · Cited by 52
“Historical pathogen prevalence estimates were obtained from Murray & Schaller [4] who compiled an index incorporating nine distinct diseases (leishmanias, schistosomes, trypanosomes, leprosy, malaria, typhus, filariae, dengue and tuberculosis) derived from”
MethodInfluentialIndividualism and women's economic rights
Davis, L., & Williamson, C. R. (2022) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2022.04.011 · Cited by 48
Culture Creation and Change: Making Sense of the Past to Inform Future Research Agendas
Kim, Y. J., Toh, S. M., & Baik, S. (2022) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063221081031 · Cited by 50
Foreign bank subsidiaries’ risk-taking behavior: Impact of home and host country national culture
Ashraf, B. N., & Arshad, S. (2017) · Research in International Business and Finance · doi:10.1016/j.ribaf.2017.04.039 · Cited by 44
Is the myth of left-wing authoritarianism itself a myth?
Conway, L. G., Zubrod, A., Chan, L., McFarland, J. D., & de Vliert, E. V. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1041391 · Cited by 43
“These threats were drawn from prior work on the effect of ecological stress on the emergence of cultural beliefs related to authoritarianism and freedom (e.g., Kitayama et al., 2006, 2010; Murray and Schaller, 2010; Fincher and Thornhill, 2012; Van de Vliert, 2013; Conway et al., 2014, 2017a; Beall et al., 2016; Oishi…”
BackgroundConsanguinity as a Major Predictor of Levels of Democracy
Menie, M. A. W. O., & Bell, E. (2012) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022112443855 · Cited by 45
Conway, L. G., Bongard, K., Plaut, V. C., Gornick, L. J., Dodds, D. P., Giresi, T., Tweed, R. G., Repke, M. A., & Houck, S. C. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217713192 · Cited by 43
“…stressors involved in disease prevalence (Beall, Hofer, & Schaller, 2016; Fincher & Thornhill, 2012; Fincher, Thornhill, Murray, & Schaller, 2008; Murray & Schaller, 2010, 2012, 2014; Murray, Schaller, & Suedfeld, 2013; Murray, Trudeau, & Schaller, 2011; Park & Schaller, 2009; Schaller & Murray,…”
BackgroundWheat agriculture and family ties
Ang, J. B., & Fredriksson, P. G. (2017) · European Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2017.08.007 · Cited by 43
Does an early start help or hurt? Statehood, institutions and modern climate change policies
Ang, J. B., & Fredriksson, P. G. (2020) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2020.105075 · Cited by 43
Individualism Versus Collectivism and the Early-Stage Transmission of COVID-19
Jiang, S., Wei, Q., & Zhang, L. (2022) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-022-02972-z · Cited by 43
Pathogens, Weather Shocks and Civil Conflicts
Cervellati, M., Sunde, U., & Valmori, S. (2016) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/ecoj.12430 · Cited by 57
Na, J., Kim, N. H., Suk, H. W., Choi, E.-S., Choi, J. A., Kim, J. H., Kim, S., & Choi, I. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111127 · Cited by 42
“Most past research has shown that historical pathogen prevalence is associated with collectivism (e.g., Murray & Schaller, 2010).”
BackgroundPsychoBehavioroimmunology: Connecting the Behavioral Immune System to Its Physiological Foundations
Murray, D. R., Prokosch, M. L., & Airington, Z. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00200 · Cited by 41
Self-citationSocial capital and the cost of bank equity: Cross-country evidence
Pasiouras, F., & Samet, A. (2022) · Journal of Banking & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2022.106535 · Cited by 33
Individualism, economic freedom, and charitable giving
Cai, M., Caskey, G. W., Cowen, N., Murtazashvili, I., Murtazashvili, J. B., & Salahodjaev, R. (2022) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2022.06.037 · Cited by 46
Metadata
- Authors
- Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Murray, Damian R.
- Venue
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-10-15
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 99-108
- ISSN
- 0022-0221 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-5422
- OpenAlex
- W2113281787
- Cited by
- 446
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 70 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 29.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Development › Culture, Economy, and Development Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
- Keywords
- infectious disease prevalence, geopolitical regions, cultural origins, cross-cultural comparison, cultural evolution
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