Disproportionality and Learning Disabilities: Parsing Apart Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Language
Open accessAbstract
The disproportionate identification of learning disabilities among certain sociodemographic subgroups, typically groups that are already disadvantaged, is perceived as a persistent problem within the education system. The academic and social experiences of students who are misidentified with a learning disability may be severely restricted, whereas students with a learning disability who are never identified are less likely to receive the accommodations and modifications necessary to learn at their maximum potential. The authors use the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 to describe national patterns in learning disability identification. Results indicate that sociodemographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability. Although some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities), differences in socioeconomic status entirely account for African American and Hispanic disproportionality. The discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in the investigation of disproportionality.
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- Findingcitation
Language minorities are disproportionately identified with learning disabilities.
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § Who is Identified with a Learning Disability? · plain
- Findingown data
Socio-demographic characteristics predict whether a student is identified with a learning disability.
“Results indicate that socio-demographic characteristics are predictive of identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Findingown data
Differences in socioeconomic status fully explain the disproportionality in learning disability identification for African-American and Hispanic students.
“differences in SES entirely account for African-American and Hispanic disproportionality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Findingcitation
Males are disproportionately identified with learning disabilities.
“While some conventional areas of disproportionality are confirmed (males and language minorities)”
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Also stated in: § The Case of Males · plain
- Findingown data
The findings confirm disproportionate representation of language minorities, at least for students who have ever been in ESL or who report lack of English proficiency in the 10th grade.
“our findings confirm the disproportionate representation of language minorities, at least for those who have ever been in ESL or who report a lack of English proficiency in the 10th grade.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The results suggest that the overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities is entirely explained by their lower average socioeconomic status as a group.
“our results suggest that the overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities is entirely explained by their lower average socioeconomic status (as a group).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 5, African-American students had 28% lower odds of learning disability identification than white students of comparable background.
“once we account for other covariates of SES and academic and language-immigration history, the odds of identification for a African-American student are significantly lower (28%) than a white student of comparable background (Model 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Being a non-native English speaker is not significantly associated with increased odds of learning disability identification once socio-demographic characteristics are considered in Model 5.
“being a non-native English speaker is not significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability once socio-demographic characteristics are considered (Model 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 6, lack of current English proficiency became a significant predictor, increasing learning disability identification odds by 11% for each one-unit increase on the limited proficiency scale.
“once we account for the recent immigrant's lesser likelihood of identification, lack of current English proficiency becomes a significant predictor, increasing the odds of identification by 11% for every one-unit increase on the scale of limited proficiency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Compared with students who started U.S. schools by kindergarten, students who started between grades 6 and 10 had 96% lower odds of learning disability identification, net of all controls.
“In contrast to students who started in U.S. schools by kindergarten, the odds of identification are 96% less for students who started in U.S. schools between grades 6 and 10, net of all controls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 6, there were no significant race differences in learning disability identification odds except for Asian students' lower odds.
“Taking account of all systematic differences in background characteristics, there are no significant race differences in the odds of identification except for Asian students' lower odds (Model 6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the analytic sample, 6% of students were identified with a learning disability through an IEP.
“Of our analytic sample, 6% are identified with a learning disability as indicated by an IEP”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In bivariate analyses, African-American, Hispanic, and other-race students were disproportionately identified with learning disabilities.
“according to our bivariate analyses, African-Americans, Hispanics and students of an “other race” are also disproportionately identified with learning disabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 5, students whose parent was not a native English speaker had 57% lower odds of learning disability identification than counterparts, net of all controls.
“the odds of identification for a student whose parent's native language is not English is 57% lower than counterparts, net of all controls (Model 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A major finding is that aspects of being a language minority appear to play a role in a student's likelihood of learning disability identification.
“aspects of being a language minority appear to play a role in a student's likelihood of identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 1, Asian students had 49% lower odds of learning disability identification than white students of the same gender.
“the odds of identification for an Asian student are 49% [100(Exp(B) – 1)%] lower than those of a white student of the same gender (Model 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Net of all controls, students who participated in Head Start had 52% higher odds of learning disability identification than comparable students who did not.
“the odds of identification are 52% higher for students who participated in Head Start than they are for a comparable student who did not, net of all controls.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A major finding is that the disproportionate identification of African-American and Hispanic students with learning disabilities is accounted for by these groups' lower average socioeconomic status.
“the disproportionate identification of African-American and Hispanic students with learning disabilities is accounted for by the lower average SES of these racial/ethnic subgroups”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Differences in socioeconomic status or family background do not account for the disproportionate representation of language minority students.
“differences in SES or family background fail to account for the disproportionate representation of these students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Net of all controls, male students had 1.85 times greater odds of learning disability identification than comparable female students.
“Net of all controls, the odds of a male student being identified with a learning disability are almost double that of a comparable female (1.85 times greater net of all controls).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In Model 5, students who had ever participated in ESL had 1.55 times higher odds of learning disability identification than students who had not, net of all other controls.
“the odds of identification for a student who reported having ever participated in ESL are 1.55 times higher than for a student who reported otherwise, net of all other controls (Model 5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The discrepancy between bivariate and multivariate results supports the use of multivariate multilevel models in disproportionality research.
“Discrepancy between the results of bivariate and multivariate analyses confirms the importance of employing multivariate multilevel models in investigation of disproportionality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Premisecitation
Limited English Proficient students are placed in learning disability classes at disproportionate rates.
“Ochoa et al. (1988) found that Limited English Proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ochoa et al., 1988 source
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Interpretationreasoning
It is probable that ESL students' linguistic struggles were at some point mistaken by educators for a learning disability.
“it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
- Study design and conductreasoning
For schools that reported on some students, the 1,788 students without an IEP report were imputed as not identified with a learning disability.
“Concluding that the schools that reported on some of their students had for the most part simply only reported when students did have an IEP, we were able to impute that the school had not identified the student with a learning disability for the 1,788 students who did not have an IEP report at those schools.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Multivariate analyses indicate that disproportionate learning disability identification is driven by socioeconomic status differences, which are correlated with race in the United States, rather than by race itself.
“the multivariate analyses illuminate that disproportionate identification is actually being driven by differences in SES, a correlate of race in the U.S.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The finding that ESL participation is significantly associated with disproportionate identification suggests that specific structural mechanisms within schools also play a role.
“The finding that participation in ESL is significantly associated with disproportionate identification, though, suggests the role of specific structural mechanisms within schools as well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The correlation between learning disability identification and socio-demographic characteristics suggests that identification of learning problems may reflect social differences rather than learning differences.
“The fact that identification with a learning disability is correlated with socio-demographic characteristics suggests that identification of learning problems may reflect social differences rather than learning differences”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After excluding 4,213 students from schools with no IEP reports, the analytic sample comprised 10,847 students in 546 high schools.
“After excluding the 4,213 students attending schools that did not report the IEP status of any of their students, we achieve an analytic sample of 10,847 students within 546 high schools.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Attempts to limit disproportionality may result in denying services to students who need them.
“Attempts to limit disproportionality may in fact result in the denial of services to students who need them (Hallahan 1992; MacMillan and Reschly 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The results suggest a tension between being identified as limited English proficient and having learning difficulties attributed to a learning disability.
“This again suggests a tension between being identified as LEP and the student's learning difficulties being attributed to a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
With current diagnostic methods, it can be difficult to distinguish between limited English language proficiency and a learning disability.
“With current diagnostic methods, it can be difficult to distinguish between a lack of English language proficiency and a learning disability (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, and Higareda 2005; Klingner and Harry 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductnone given
Schools failed to report IEP status for 7,314 students in the sample.
“For reasons that are unclear, schools did not report on the IEP status of 7,314 of the students in the sample.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Other medical conditions such as cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and diabetes are disproportionately distributed according to socio-demographic characteristics.
“other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch 2006; Karlamangla, Singer, Williams, Schwartz, Matthews, Kiefe, and Seeman 2005), arthritis and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, and Crimmins 2001), are disproportionately distributed according to socio-demographic characteristics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Study design and conductnone given
A large number of schools did not report IEP status for any students.
“a large number of schools did not report IEP status for any students.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Students who entered U.S. schools at a later age have had less exposure to the risk of learning disability identification.
“students who entered the U.S. school system at a later age have simply not experienced the same degree of exposure to risk of identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Racial/ethnic minorities are more likely to have low socioeconomic status.
“it is possible that these are valid diagnoses resulting from the greater likelihood of racial/ethnic minorities to have low SES (Blair and Scott 2002; Daniels 1998; MacMillan and Reschly 1998; O'Connor and Fernandez 2006; Skiba et al. 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
- Premisecitation
The 2004 reauthorization of IDEA attempted to address variable and inaccurate diagnostic practices through a disproportionality amendment and the incorporation of Response to Intervention.
“An attempt to address variable and inaccurate diagnostic practices occurred with the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA, via a specific “disproportionality amendment” and the incorporation of a new choice of diagnostic model, Response to Intervention (RTI) (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006; Shinn 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
The percentages of students with an IEP and with a learning disability were similar between schools that reported on all students and those that reported on some.
“By comparing school-level distributions, we found that, despite differences in reporting, there were comparable percentages of students identified as having an IEP and identified with a learning disability in the two sets of schools that reported on, 1) all of their students and 2) some of their students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 26
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataGrade retention and being older than peers in the 10th grade are significantly associated with increased odds of learning disability identification.
“Grade retention and being older than peers in the 10th grade are significantly associated with increased odds of identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNon-native English speakers were 12% of the analytic sample but 15% of students identified with a learning disability, indicating disproportionate identification.
“non-native English speakers comprise 12% of the analytic sample but 15% of those identified with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNet of all controls, significant positive predictors of learning disability identification include ever being in ESL or currently lacking English proficiency, while having a non-native-English-speaking parent or starting U.S. schools after early elementary grades are significant negative predictors.
“Overall, net of all controls, significant positive predictors of identification include having ever been in ESL or currently lacking in English proficiency, while having a parent who is not a native English speaker or having started in U.S. schools anytime after the early elementary grades persist as significant negative predictors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Model 6, net of all controls, learning disability identification odds increase by 6% with each additional sibling and decrease by 11% for every one-unit increase in household cognitive resources.
“Net of all controls, the odds of a student's identification increase by 6% with each additional sibling, and decrease by 11% for every one-unit increase in cognitive resources present in the household (Model 6).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingcitationAlthough socioeconomic status is significantly associated with learning disability identification, it is unclear whether this is due to environmental or prenatal factors or to how schools treat students by socioeconomic background.
“although SES is significantly associated with identification with a learning disability, it is unclear whether this is due to environmental or prenatal factors, both of which affect childhood development (Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990; Shonkoff and Phillips 2000), or the way that schools treat students depending on their socioeconomic background.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Natriello, McDill, and Pallas 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFamily income is consistently negatively associated with learning disability identification, while highest parental education becomes insignificant once covariates of SES and academic history are held constant.
“In contrast to highest parental education level, which is rendered insignificant once measures of covariates of SES and academic history are held constant, family income is consistently negatively associated with identification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Model 2, controls for parental education and family income explained all significant race/ethnicity effects, except Asian students still had 54% lower odds than comparable-SES white students.
“all of the significant race/ethnicity effects are explained once we account for the systematic differences in SES between these groups by including controls for highest parental education level and family income (Model 2). The one exception is that the odds of being identified for an Asian student are 54% lower than for a white of comparable SES.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Model 1, Native American students had 1.56 times greater odds and other-race students had 1.42 times greater odds of learning disability identification, but the Native American effect was not significant and the other-race effect was only marginally significant.
“The odds are also 1.56 times greater for Native Americans and 1.42 times greater for students of any other race (Model 1); the former effect is not significant and the latter is only marginally so”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMales made up 50% of the analytic sample but 66% of students identified with a learning disability, indicating disproportionate identification.
“Males are disproportionately identified, representing 50% of our analytic sample but 66% of those identified with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Model 1 controlling for gender, African-American students had 1.43 times greater odds and Hispanic students had 1.49 times greater odds of learning disability identification than white students.
“the odds of identification with a learning disability are 1.43 times greater for African-Americans and 1.49 times greater for Hispanics compared to whites (the reference category), controlling for gender (Model 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Model 6, ever having been in ESL remained a significant positive predictor and having a non-native-English-speaking parent remained a significant negative predictor of learning disability identification.
“In Model 6, having been in ESL remains a significant positive predictor and having a non-native-English-speaking parent remains a significant negative predictor of identification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataA major finding is that learning disability identification is associated with a student's sex, socio-demographic non-cognitive characteristics, and academic history.
“identification with a learning disability is associated with a student's sex, socio-demographic (non-cognitive) characteristics, and academic history”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationDepending on the state, males are 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely than females to be identified with learning disabilities, and the gender gap is slightly larger in the South.
“males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho and Oswald 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Coutinho and Oswald 2005 source
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe inclusion of academic experience and outcome measures was intentionally limited because these may be consequences rather than causes of identification.
“We are intentionally parsimonious in our inclusion of measures of academic experiences and outcomes, because these may be the result rather than the cause of identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLanguage minority students are identified later and at higher rates than native English speakers, with underrepresentation in kindergarten and first grade and overrepresentation by third grade.
“Samson and Lesaux (2009) used the nationally representative dataset ECLS-K to determine that language minority students are identified later and in higher proportions than their native-English-speaking peers, being underrepresented in special education in kindergarten and first grade, but overrepresented by the 3rd grade.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Samson and Lesaux 2009 source
- Rests on an assumption: The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBradley et al. describe three tiers of RTI: research-based instruction for all students, observation of all students for response to instruction, and individualized intensive interventions for students who need them.
“Bradley et al. (2007) describe the three tiers of RTI as 1) the receipt of research-based instruction by all students, 2) observation of all students for response to instruction, and 3) “individualized and intensive interventions and services” for those students who need it.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bradley et al. 2007 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningMultivariate, multilevel modeling of national data that includes student-level measures of identification, socioeconomic status, other socio-demographic characteristics, and academic history is essential.
“multivariate, multilevel modeling of national data that includes student-level measures of identification, SES, other socio-demographic characteristics, and academic history is essential.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe analytic sample cannot be confidently considered nationally representative, though high-minority and high-poverty proportions were similar between included and excluded schools.
“Although the proportion of schools that are high-minority and high-poverty within the analytic sample and the sample of excluded schools are similar, we cannot claim with confidence that our analytic sample is nationally representative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataDue to data constraints, the study cannot thoroughly illuminate the mechanisms by which socio-demographic factors may affect learning disability identification.
“due to data constraints, we cannot thoroughly illuminate the mechanisms whereby this may occur.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe persistent significant associations between learning disability identification and these characteristics suggest that identification is not socially neutral but is related to structural features of the education system and students' academic histories.
“The persistent significant associations between identification and these characteristics suggest that identification with a learning disability is not socially neutral, but rather related to structural features of the education system and students' academic histories.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningTime-invariant or retrospective measures were chosen to avoid measures that might result from learning disability identification.
“Since the actual learning disability diagnosis may have occurred before the 10th grade, we were careful to select time invariant or retrospective measures that were not likely to be a result of having been identified with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataData from ELS were collected before RTI implementation, so the findings must be interpreted separately from the RTI approach to identification.
“Data from ELS, however, were collected prior to the implementation of RTI; consequently, our findings must be interpreted separately from the RTI approach to identification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPoor and inappropriate diagnostic procedures and/or discrimination may play a role in the disproportionate identification of certain students.
“Poor and inappropriate diagnostic procedures and/or discrimination may play a role in the disproportionate identification of certain students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe ELS dataset is a strength of the study because it is large and nationally representative of students receiving both special and regular education.
“the use of a dataset like ELS is a strength of this study – large and nationally representative of students receiving both special and regular education”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationRTI is thought to better account for interpersonal and institutional factors affecting students and to improve practices on a school-wide basis.
“RTI is thought to better account for “interpersonal and institutional factors” affecting the student and to improve practices on a school-wide basis (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007; Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
- cites Harris-Murri, King, and Rostenberg 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe study's results would be strengthened by a more nuanced measure of the type of learning disability.
“Our results would be bolstered by a more nuanced measure of the type of learning disability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPrevious research confirms that home resources in early childhood positively contribute to the development of cognitive and learning ability.
“Previous research confirms that resources in the home during early childhood positively contribute to the development of both cognitive and learning ability (Shonkoff and Phillips 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shonkoff and Phillips 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDespite a 2006 IDEA regulatory guide, the RTI process remains somewhat ambiguous and its effect has not been thoroughly researched.
“Despite the issuance of an IDEA regulatory guide in 2006, the process of RTI is still somewhat ambiguous and its effect has not been thoroughly researched (Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bradley, Danielson, and Doolittle 2007 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAfrican-Americans are disproportionately represented in intervention programs such as Head Start, Chapter 1, and Follow Through, just as they are overrepresented in special education programs.
“MacMillan and Reschly (1998) point out that African-Americans are disproportionately represented in intervention programs (e.g., Head Start, Chapter 1, Follow Through), just as they are overrepresented in special education programs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites MacMillan and Reschly 1998 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningParental education and family income were used as separate SES measures rather than a composite because each may relate differently to identification.
“Two distinct basic measures of SES – highest parental education level and family income – were used rather than a composite measure since each component may contribute differentially to identification with a learning disability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenBivariate analyses depend on the implicit assumption that average backgrounds of different groups are similar and unrelated to the outcome of interest.
“Bivariate analyses, in contrast to multivariate analyses, depend on the implicit assumption that the average backgrounds of different groups of people are similar and unrelated to the outcome of interest.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningResearch focusing solely on bivariate analyses neglects possible explanatory factors and may lead to misguided directions for future research and policy-making.
“Research focusing solely on bivariate analyses inadvertently neglects a myriad of possible explanatory factors, and ultimately may result in misguided directions for future research and policy-making.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataAmong the schools, 351 reported IEP status for all sampled students, 196 for some, and 204 for none.
“we were able to determine that 351 of the schools indicated the IEP status of all of the students sampled from their school, 196 schools reported on some of the students sampled, and 204 schools reported on none of the students sampled.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenMissing values on all independent variables except race and gender were imputed using mean and mode, and imputation flags were included in multivariate models.
“Mean and mode imputation was used to account for missing values on all independent variables except for race and gender; imputation flags were included in all multivariate models.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningGrade retention dummies were included because retention may correlate with learning disability identification and low-SES students are more likely to be held back.
“Because of a potential correlation between grade retention and identification with a learning disability, and the greater likelihood of low SES students to be held back, we include four dummies indicating whether the student repeated one or more grades during early elementary (K-2), late elementary (3-5), middle/high school (6-10).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The school's IEP designation for Specific Learning Disability is a valid indicator of learning disability identification.
“We utilize the variable indicating whether the student is identified with a learning disability by their school in the 10th grade1. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is enacted when students are identified as eligible for special education services, and the school's designation indicates specifically whether the student has an IEP for a Specific Learning Disability.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career.
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency.
“exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan 2005)”
The paper relies on this without support.
No research indicates that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.
“no research exists indicating that language minorities should have a higher prevalence of learning disabilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability.
“federal regulations specify that neither cultural differences nor limited English proficiency should be associated with identification with a learning disability”
The paper relies on this without support.
A student's report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling.
“a student report of being a non-native English speaker does not capture the great variation in English proficiency among students and across their years of schooling”
The paper relies on this without support.
More recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during elementary years.
“more recent immigrants were more likely to report having been in ESL than students who started school in the United States during the elementary years”
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From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
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“…Medicine of the National Academies concludes that early experiences influence brain development, that culture influences early development through child-rearing beliefs and practices, and that the brain can actually be harmed by poor nutrition, health, or chronic stress (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).”
BackgroundEducation and Treatment of Children
Hickman, J. A., Wheatley, J. K., & Sheridan, K. D. (2014) · Encyclopedia of Special Education · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese0816 · Cited by 3,233 · see citing works
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
Carey, W. B. (2001) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/00004703-200104000-00011 · Cited by 2,681 · see citing works
Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges
Skiba, R. J., Simmons, A. B., Ritter, S., Gibb, A. C., Rausch, M. K., Cuadrado, J., & Chung, C.-G. (2008) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290807400301 · Cited by 664 · cited 9× · see citing works
“…has tended to focus on the disproportional identification of Black students with mental retardation and emotional disturbance (OSEP, 2007; Skiba et al., 2008), there is evidence to suggest that the gap between Black and White students in rates of identification with a learning disability…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGalobardes, B., Smith, G. D., & Lynch, J. W. (2006) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.06.053 · Cited by 643 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…should be proportionately distributed throughout the population, but the fact is that other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch, 2006; Karlamangla et al., 2005), arthritis, and diabetes (Blackwell, Hayward, & Crimmins, 2001), are disproportionately…”
BackgroundTracking and High School English Learners: Limiting Opportunity to Learn
Callahan, R. M. (2005) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312042002305 · Cited by 511 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Assuming students placed in ESL struggled with English proficiency at some point in their school career and that exit from ESL is not always an indication of English proficiency (Callahan, 2005), it is probable that their linguistic struggles may have been mistaken at some point by educators as a learning disability.”
BackgroundSelf-citationArtiles, A. J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J. J., & Higareda, I. (2005) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440290507100305 · Cited by 496 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Language minorities are also affected by the lack of proper assessment in their native language (Artiles et al., 2005; Klingner & Harry, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodDoes childhood health affect chronic morbidity in later life?
Blackwell, D. L., Hayward, M. D., & Crimmins, E. M. (2001) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00230-6 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
Raudenbush, S. W., Yang, M.-L., & Yosef, M. (2000) · Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics · doi:10.1080/10618600.2000.10474870 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Responsiveness-to-Intervention
Fuchs, L. S., & Vaughn, S. R. (2012) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219412442150 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Schooling Disadvantaged Children: Racing against Catastrophe.
Baker, D. P., Natriello, G., McDill, E. L., & Pallas, A. M. (1992) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2074751 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
The Disproportionate Representation of African Americans in Special Education
Patton, J. M. (1998) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/002246699803200104 · Cited by 319 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Many researchers are concerned that disproportionate identification of racial/ethnic minorities with learning disabilities is part of the long history of racism and stratification within education (Patton, 1998; Skiba et al., 2008).”
BackgroundEnglish Language Learners Who Struggle With Reading
Klingner, J. K., Artiles, A. J., & Barletta, L. M. (2006) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194060390020101 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Language-Minority Learners in Special Education: Rates and Predictors of Identification for Services
Samson, J. F., & Lesaux, N. K. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219408326221 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Reid, D. K., & Knight, M. (2006) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x035006018 · Cited by 223 · cited 5× · see citing works
“An institutional perspective portrays disproportionality as the rejection of minority cultures by the dominant culture (Patton 1998), or the use of the disability label as an instrument of disadvantage (Reid and Knight 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialCallahan, R., Wilkinson, L., & Muller, C. (2010) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373709359805 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Connor, C., & Fernandez, S. D. (2006) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x035006006 · Cited by 217 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Although previous research in the field of special education has tended to emphasize the potential that racism underlies the over-identification of racial/ethnic minorities, it is possible that these are valid diagnoses resulting from the greater likelihood of racial/ethnic minorities to have low SES (Blair and Scott…”
BackgroundMacMillan, D. L., & Reschly, D. J. (1998) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/002246699803200103 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
The Cultural Work of Learning Disabilities
McDermott, R., Goldman, S. V., & Varenne, H. (2006) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x035006012 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Klingner, J. K., & Harry, B. (2006) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00781.x · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Shinn, M. R. (2007) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.2007.12087920 · Cited by 148 · cited 10× · see citing works
“Although both a criticism and a supplement for the three more traditional models—the ability-achievement discrepancy, low-achievement, and intraindividual discrepancy models—a specific intent of RTI is to reduce disproportionality.”
MethodResultInfluentialValidity of Alternative Approaches for the Identification of Learning Disabilities
Fletcher, J. M., Denton, C. A., & Francis, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194050380061101 · Cited by 138 · cited 6× · see citing works
“This final model is also criticized for overidentifying students (Fletcher et al., 2005; Giovingo et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialResponsiveness to Intervention: 1997 to 2007
Bradley, R., Danielson, L., & Doolittle, J. (2007) · TEACHING Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/004005990703900502 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
(2006) · Education and Treatment of Children · Cited by 116 · see citing works
State Variation in Gender Disproportionality in Special Education: Findings and Recommendations
Coutinho, M. J., & Oswald, D. P. (2005) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325050260010201 · Cited by 109 · cited 7× · see citing works
“…gender gap narrowed from 1976 to 2000-2001, evidence of state and regional variation in male disproportionality remains; males are from 1.7 to 2.7 times more likely to be identified than females depending on the state, and the gender gap is slightly greater in the South (Coutinho & Oswald, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialKarlamangla, A. S., Singer, B. H., Williams, D. R., Schwartz, J. E., Matthews, K. A., Kiefe, C. I., & Seeman, T. E. (2004) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.056 · Cited by 97 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Negative perceptions of disproportionality are based on an assumption that learning disabilities should be proportionately distributed throughout the population, but the fact is that other medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (Galobardes, Smith, and Lynch, 2006; Karlamangla et al., 2005), arthritis, and…”
BackgroundWhat Follow-Up Studies Say About Postschool Life for Young Men and Women with Learning Disabilities
Levine, P., & Nourse, S. W. (1998) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949803100302 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
English Language Learners, LD, and Overrepresentation
Rueda, R. S., & Windmueller, M. P. (2006) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194060390020801 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Effects of Task-Focused Goals on Low-Achieving Students With and Without Learning Disabilities
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Karns, K., Hamlett, C. L., Katzaroff, M., & Dutka, S. (1997) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312034003513 · Cited by 78 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…of students identified with a learning disability by the discrepancy model was not distinct from those designated as simply low achieving (Fletcher et al., 2005; Shinn, 2007); others, though, maintain that the two groups of students are distinct (Fuchs et al., 1997; Kavale, Fuchs, & Scruggs, 1994).”
BackgroundResultCallahan, R. M., Wilkinson, L., Muller, C. L., & Frisco, M. L. (2008) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904807310034 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationAlgozzine, B., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1986) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221948601900707 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Minority Students in Gifted and Special Education Programs: The Case for Educational Equity
Daniels, V. I. (1998) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/002246699803200107 · Cited by 74 · cited 6× · see citing works
“…condition or context; beyond this, though, a wide range of definitions and criteria describe learning disabilities more specifically than the federal category of “specific learning disability” (Algozzine & Ysseldyke, 1986; Daniels, 1998; Fletcher, Denton, & Francis, 2005; Levine & Nourse, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluentialKavale, K. A. (1994) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Proportion of LD Placements Associated with Low Socioeconomic Status: Evidence for a Gradient?
Blair, C., & Scott, K. G. (2002) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/00224669020360010201 · Cited by 70 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Although previous research in the field of special education has tended to emphasize the potential that racism underlies the over-identification of racial/ethnic minorities, it is possible that these are valid diagnoses resulting from the greater likelihood of racial/ethnic minorities to have low SES (Blair and Scott…”
BackgroundEnglish Language Learners With Reading-Related LD
Wilkinson, C. Y., Ortiz, A. A., Robertson, P. M., & Kushner, M. I. (2006) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194060390020201 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Gender bias and special education referrals
Anderson, K. G. (1997) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-997-0024-8 · Cited by 61 · cited 7× · see citing works
“The paucity of research interest in gender disparities may be in part because of evidence that biological differences may make boys more prone to learning disabilities or girls better equipped to compensate for them (Anderson, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSome Thoughts on Why the Prevalence of Learning Disabilities Has Increased
Hallahan, D. P. (1992) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949202500806 · Cited by 52 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Attempts to limit disproportionality may in fact result in the denial of services to students who need them (Hallahan, 1992; MacMillan & Reschly, 1998).”
BackgroundAdolescents with Disabilities in High School Setting: Student Characteristics and Setting Dynamics.
Deshler, D. D., Lenz, B. K., Bulgren, J. A., et al. (2004) · Learning disabilities · Cited by 49 · see citing works
High Roads and Low Roads: Learning Disabilities in California, 1976–1998
Ong-Dean, C. (2006) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2006.49.1.91 · Cited by 40 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Disproportionality raises concerns about the validity and reliability of the label learning disabled (Giovingo, Proctor, & Prevatt, 2005) and/or suggests that placement in special education may function as a tool of discrimination (McDermott, Goldman, & Varenne, 2006; Ong-Dean, 2006; Reid & Knight, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSchooling disadvantaged children: racing against catastrophe
(1990) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-1675 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Factors Influencing the Identification of Black and White Students with Learning Disabilities
McLeskey, J., Waldron, N. L., & Wornhoff, S. A. (1990) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949002300607 · Cited by 27 · cited 1× · see citing works
“McLeskey et al. (1990) demonstrated that using a regression-based versus a standard-score-based procedure actually resulted in proportionate identification of learning disability among a sample of African American and White students.”
MethodGiovingo, L. K., Proctor, B. E., & Prevatt, F. F. (2005) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194050380010601 · Cited by 18 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…is also criticized for (a) not identifying whether a child’s low achievement is commensurate with his or her ability and (b) not facilitating the identification of high-ability students with learning difficulties and average achievement (Fletcher et al., 2005; Giovingo et al., 2005; Meyen, 1989).”
Let's Not Confuse Test Scores with the Substance of the Discrepancy Model
Meyen, E. L. (1989) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221948902200805 · Cited by 13 · cited 4× · see citing works
“…is also criticized for (a) not identifying whether a child’s low achievement is commensurate with his or her ability and (b) not facilitating the identification of high-ability students with learning difficulties and average achievement (Fletcher et al., 2005; Giovingo et al., 2005; Meyen, 1989).”
BackgroundInfluentialOchoa, A. M., Pacheco, R., & Omark, D. R. (1988) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.2307/1510770 · Cited by 12 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Ochoa, Pacheco, and Omark (1988) found that limited English proficient (LEP) students are disproportionately placed in classes for students with learning disabilities.”
BackgroundClampit, M. K., & Silver, S. J. (1990) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949002300411 · Cited by 9 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…are culturally biased (Skiba et al., 2008), identification with the discrepancy model has been shown to vary depending on the type of IQ and/or achievement assessments used as well as the methodology for determining the discrepancy (Clampit & Silver, 1990; McLeskey, Waldron, & Wornhoff, 1990).”
MethodThe Learning Disabilities Association of America
(1993) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221949302600906 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M., Mattison, R., Maczuga, S., Li, H., & Cook, M. (2015) · Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0013189x15591157 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
“Those studies adjusting for individual- and family-level as well as school-level potential confounds consistently indicate the minority children are underrepresented in special education, with this underrepresentation evident both generally and for specific disability conditions and both prior to and following school…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSullivan, A. L., & Bal, A. (2013) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440291307900406 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, the results do indicate that school context influences the likelihood of special education identification, consistent with the conclusion of other researchers who concluded that social difference and context matter in the identification of educational disabilities (e.g., Hibel et al., 2010; Shifrer et al.…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialShifrer, D. (2013) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146513503346 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
“The disproportionate labeling of language minorities is particularly indicative of problematic diagnostic processes (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLeading Inclusive Schools: Principal Perceptions, Practices, and Challenges to Meaningful Change
DeMatthews, D. E., Serafini, A., & Watson, T. N. (2020) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x20913897 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“Many factors contribute to segregated schooling for low-income students of color identified with disabilities (Banks, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRace and Disability: From Analogy to Intersectionality
Frederick, A., & Shifrer, D. (2019) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/2332649218783480 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
“African Americans and American Indians have the highest rate of experiencing disability in the United States, patterns created by both economic disparities and racial discrimination (Anderson 2012; Krieger 2012; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011; Turner 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRisks and Consequences of Oversimplifying Educational Inequities
Skiba, R. J., Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E. B., Losen, D. J., & Harry, E. G. (2016) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x16644606 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“…upon indirect methods of counting special education enrollment from teacher or administrator survey (e.g., Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011) have tended to find that the introduction of SES as an independent variable reduces findings of overrepresentation to…”
MethodEneriz-Wiemer, M., Sanders, L., Barr, D. A., & Mendoza, F. (2014) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2013.10.003 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Disability and Victimization in a National Sample of Children and Youth
Turner, H. A., Vanderminden, J., Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S., & Shattuck, A. (2011) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559511427178 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Fish, R. E. (2019) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831219847966 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“used in many studies (Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011), the size and completeness of the data allow for investigation of racial”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReplicated Evidence of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Disability Identification in U.S. Schools
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., & Maczuga, S. (2017) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x17726282 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“Children’s primary disability condition was also reported, and conditions examined included ED, autism, other health impairment (OHI), SLD, SLI, ID, or ADHD.3 The OHI condition included many children with ADHD but also children with other types of disabilities, including anxiety, seizure disorders, diabetes, asthma, a…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAn Integrative Synthesis of Literature on Disproportionality in Special Education
Cruz, R. A., & Rodl, J. E. (2018) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466918758707 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“…regression model; Hibel et al. (2008) found that Black, Latino, and Asian students were significantly underrepresented in special education; and Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2011) found that when controlling for parent education and family income, all significant race effects were explained…”
BackgroundMorgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Cook, M., Strassfeld, N. M., Hillemeier, M., Pun, W.-H., & Schussler, D. L. (2017) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402916664042 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“, 2005), some recent studies have found that they are less likely to be referred or found eligible for special education when contrasted to otherwise similar White children (e.g., Hibel, Farkas, & Morgan, 2010; P. L. Morgan et al., 2012, 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKirby, M. (2016) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9382-x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“…language, added in the 2004 revision of IDEA, was prompted by the overrepresentation of African American students in high incidence disability categories, as well as an increase in the number of students receiving services under the learning disabilities category (Ciolfi 2011; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSocioeconomic Status and Reading Disability: Neuroanatomy and Plasticity in Response to Intervention
Romeo, R. R., Christodoulou, J. A., Halverson, K. K., Murtagh, J., Cyr, A. B., Schimmel, C., Chang, P., Hook, P. E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx131 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“This is an important gap in knowledge to address, because children from lower-SES backgrounds disproportionately meet RD criteria (Peterson and Pennington 2015) and are diagnosed with specific learning disabilities at significantly higher rates than children from higher SES backgrounds (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundKimball, E. W., Wells, R. S., Ostiguy, B. J., Manly, C. A., & Lauterbach, A. A. (2016) · Higher education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26829-3_3 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
People with Disabilities: Sidelined or Mainstreamed?
Schur, L. A., Kruse, D. L., & Blanck, P. (2013) · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Shifrer, D., Callahan, R. M., & Muller, C. (2013) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831213479439 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“Racial minorities (Blanchett, 2006), students from economically disadvantaged families (Shifrer et al., 2011), and language minority youth (Ochoa et al.”
InfluentialSelf-citationFish, R. E. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.007 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
A Snapshot of RTI Implementation a Decade Later: New Picture, Same Story
Berkeley, S. L., Scanlon, D. J., Bailey, T. R., Sutton, J. C., & Sacco, D. M. (2020) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219420915867 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Disproportionality in Special Education: A Synthesis of International Research and Trends
Cooc, N., & Kiru, E. W. (2018) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466918772300 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Factors Influencing Clinical Correlates of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): a Review
Asken, B. M., Sullan, M. J., Snyder, A., Houck, Z. M., Bryant, V. E., Hizel, L. P., McLaren, M. E., Dede, D. E., Jaffee, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., et al. (2016) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-016-9327-z · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“disproportionally diagnosed with learning disability (Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundSchool Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification
Elder, T. E., Figlio, D., Imberman, S. A., & Persico, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/711421 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Delayed Special Education Placement for Learning Disabilities among Children of Immigrants
Hibel, J., & Jasper, A. D. (2012) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sos092 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Cook, M., Strassfeld, N. M., Hillemeier, M. M., Pun, W. H., Wang, Y., & Schussler, D. L. (2018) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402917748303 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“We identified several studies providing numerical estimates of disproportionate representation of ELL (e.g., Samson & Lesaux, 2009) and for language-minority children (Hibel & Jasper, 2012; Morgan et al., 2012; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
Dunn, K., Rydzewska, E., Fleming, M., & Cooper, S. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035280 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“19 20 While prevalence rates of health conditions in a full country population for individuals with intellectual disabilities and individuals with autism have been compared with the general population in previous work using the Scotland’s Census 2011, 3 4 7 no such study has been conducted on the…”
Parsing the Relations of Race and Socioeconomic Status in Special Education Disproportionality
Kincaid, A. P., & Sullivan, A. L. (2016) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932516671199 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Quinn, J. M., Wagner, R. K., Petscher, Y., Roberts, G., Menzel, A., & Schatschneider, C. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000382 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Socioeconomic status and reading outcomes: Neurobiological and behavioral correlates
Romeo, R. R., Uchida, L., & Christodoulou, J. A. (2022) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20475 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Shifrer, D. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.12.001 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationEmery, A. A., & Anderman, L. H. (2020) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2020.1787170 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
On Cultural Politics in Special Education: Is Much of It Justifiable?
Kauffman, J. M., & Anastasiou, D. (2019) · Journal of Disability Policy Studies · doi:10.1177/1044207318822262 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Educational Psychology: Using Insights from Implicit Attitude Measures
Glock, S., & Kovacs, C. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9241-3 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“…consistently shown that grading, tracking, as well as special needs referrals are not exclusively based on the academic performance of students (Glock et al. 2013c; Hallinan 1991; Kao and Thompson 2003; Portes and MacLeod 1999; Shifrer et al. 2010; Skiba et al. 2008; Southworth and Mickelson 2007).”
BackgroundMarkova, M., Cate, I. P.-T., Krolak‐Schwerdt, S., & Glock, S. (2015) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2015.1055317 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“For example, teachers may hold lower educational expectations for students with immigrant backgrounds or SEN because of cumulative social and academic disadvantages (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialShifrer, D. (2018) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00380253.2018.1479198 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…rates (Morgan and Farkas 2015, 2016; Morgan et al. 2015, 2013), this study interprets findings like these as evidence of the importance of inequality outside of schools for education and health outcomes, similar to Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2011) and Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan (2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationDisability at the intersections
Shifrer, D., & Frederick, A. (2019) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12733 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Special education controls learning opportunities (Shifrer et al. 2011; Shifrer 2013, 2016), potentially particularly limiting opportunities for youth with more restrictive placements, that is, youth educated into separate classrooms with different curriculum.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCooc, N. (2016) · Exceptionality · doi:10.1080/09362835.2016.1216847 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Understanding Disability: High-Quality Evidence in Research on Special Education Disproportionality
Ahram, R., Voulgarides, C. K., & Cruz, R. A. (2021) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x20985069 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…predictors in their models, the magnitude of this underrepresentation in special education reduces (Hibel et al., 2010; Mann et al., 2007; Shifrer et al., 2011; Talbott et al., 2011), underscoring the importance of local contextual factors and variation in special education…”
BackgroundSullivan, A. L., Artiles, A. J., & Hernández-Saca, D. I. (2014) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2014.929969 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Social isolation and achievement of students with learning disabilities
Bruefach, T., & Reynolds, J. R. (2021) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102667 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
District-Level Achievement Gaps Explain Black and Hispanic Overrepresentation in Special Education
Farkas, G., Morgan, P. L., Hillemeier, M. M., et al. (2020) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402919893695 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“This finding has been observed using different data sets and statistical methods (Morgan et al., 2012, 2015, 2018; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, et al., 2017, 2018) as well as by other researchers analyzing other databases (Cooc, 2019; Fish, 2019; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
ResultSong, L., Fang, P., Jiang, Z., Li, S., Song, X., & Wan, Y. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105408 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners in Special Education: English Learners
Counts, J., Katsiyannis, A., & Whitford, D. K. (2018) · NASSP Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0192636518755945 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“As a result, teachers continue to refer students who exhibit low-language proficiency for special education identification rather than addressing language deficits, resulting in overrepresentation of EL in special education (Artiles et al., 2010; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialEligibility for Special Education in Elementary School: The Role of Diverse Language Experiences
Yamasaki, B. L., & Luk, G. (2018) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2018_lshss-dyslc-18-0006 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Hernández-Saca, D. I., & Cannon, M. A. (2019) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/09518398.2019.1576944 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Disability as Status Competition: The Role of Race in Classifying Children
Skrtic, T. M., Saatcioglu, A., & Nichols, A. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231211024398 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Low-income children may be deprived of family and community conditions that adversely affect their growth and development, making them more prone to disabilities (MacMillan and Reschly 1998; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundCooc, N. (2021) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2021.10.002 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Scott, A. N., Hauerwas, L. B., & Brown, R. (2013) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0731948713507261 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Examining Racial Disparities in Teacher Perceptions of Student Disabilities
Cooc, N. (2017) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811711900703 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Selection for special education services: the role of gender and socio-economic status
Kvande, M. N., Belsky, J., & Wichstrøm, L. (2018) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2017.1373493 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Teacher-Student Race Match and Identification for Discretionary Educational Services
Hart, C. M. D., & Lindsay, C. A. (2024) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312241229413 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…even when students were compared to those of similar socioeconomic status (Grindal et al., 2019), others have found that race gaps in some types of special education services were partially (Sullivan & Bal, 2013) or fully (Shifrer et al., 2011) mediated by socioeconomic factors.”
BackgroundWhen Average Is Not Good Enough: Students With Learning Disabilities at Selective, Private Colleges
Weis, R., Erickson, C. P., & Till, C. H. (2016) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219416646706 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Vouyoukas, C., Τζουριάδου, Μ., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Μιχαλοπούλου, Λ. Ε. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016686150 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Shifrer, D., & Fish, R. E. (2019) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869319847243 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationSolari, E. J., Petscher, Y., & Folsom, J. S. (2014) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219412463435 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Scott, 2002) and language minorities (Shifrer, Muller, & Callahan, 2011) and Hispanics who come from lower income backgrounds (Shifrer et al., 2011) are identified at a higher rate as LD.”
BackgroundCooc, N. (2019) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466919839029 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…(ORs) for AAPIs receiving special education relative to White students in studies ranged from 0.23 to 0.66 (Hibel et al., 2010; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, & Maczuga, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011; Sullivan & Bal, 2013), which covers the national OR of 0.49 (U.S. Department of Education, 2016a).”
BackgroundInfluentialRehfeld, D. M., Kirkpatrick, M., O’Guinn, N., & Renbarger, R. (2022) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2022_lshss-21-00160 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Der Prozess der Feststellung sonderpädagogischen Förderbedarfs in Deutschland
Sälzer, C., Gebhardt, M., Müller, K., et al. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-06604-8_5 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Salvatore, S., White, C., & Podowitz‐Thomas, S. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00508-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…misdiagnosis, and shifting diagnosis criteria are common for neurodivergent people (Akinhanmi et al., 2018; Ennis-Cole et al., 2013; Fadus et al., 2020; Fitzger-ald, 2002; Frances et al., 2022; Grimm & Schulz, 2014; Lai & Baron-Cohen, 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011; Wood-Downie et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSuicide Attempts Among Individuals With Specific Learning Disorders: An Underrecognized Issue
Fuller‐Thomson, E., Carroll, S. Z., & Yang, W. (2017) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219417714776 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“The prevalence of SLDs diagnoses varies substantially by race (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundStrand, S., & Lindorff, A. (2021) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402921990895 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Other studies in the United States with pupil-level data (e.g., Donovan & Cross, 2002; Kincaid & Sullivan, 2017; Shifrer et al., 2011) have also reported significant associations with SES.”
BackgroundCheung, W. C., Shen, S., & Meadan, H. (2021) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-021-09796-8 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
What Does a Culturally Sustaining Learning Climate Look Like?
Doucet, F. (2017) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2017.1354618 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“This circumstance is not aided by the reality that assessments have not yet been developed that can parse whether students’ difficulties with acquisition of English are due simply to how hard it is to learn another language or to students’ actual cognitive limitations or learning disabilities (MacSwan & Rolstad, 2006;…”
BackgroundInfluentialA longitudinal analysis of school discipline events among youth in foster care
Kothari, B. H., Godlewski, B. J., McBeath, B., McGee, M. G., Waid, J., Lipscomb, S. T., & Bank, L. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.017 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Students with disabilities also experience more discipline events than their peers, particularly those with learning disabilities (Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShifrer, D., & Callahan, R. M. (2010) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/016264341002500307 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationSchool Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification
Elder, T. E., Figlio, D., Imberman, S. A., & Persico, C. L. (2019) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w25829 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
IDEA’s Double Bind: A Synthesis of Disproportionality Policy Interpretations
Sullivan, A. L., & Osher, D. A. (2019) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402918818047 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Shadow education, pandemic style: Social class, race, and supplemental education during Covid-19
Lee, J. C., Quadlin, N. Y., & Ambriz, D. (2022) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2022.100755 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Brunelle, K., Abdulle, S., & Gorey, K. M. (2019) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-019-00631-w · Cited by 24 · see citing works
State English learner education policy: A conceptual framework to guide comprehensive policy action
Umansky, I. M., & Porter, L. (2020) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.28.4594 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Peters, C. D., Kranzler, J. H., Algina, J. J., et al. (2014) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21761 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Race, Response to Intervention, and Reading Research
Willis, A. I. (2019) · Journal of Literacy Research · doi:10.1177/1086296x19877463 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Stevens, J. J., & Schulte, A. C. (2016) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219415618496 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Park, S. (2020) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146812012200510 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“13% of all students (Shifrer et al., 2011; Watkins & Liu, 2013; Zehler et al., 2003).”
BackgroundWallace, J., Worts, P. R., Moran, R., Mason, J., Weise, K. K., Swanson, M. W., & Murray, N. G. (2020) · Journal of Clinical and Translational Research · doi:10.18053/jctres.06.202005.002 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Tometten, L., Heyder, A., & Steinmayr, R. (2021) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.102022 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Finnvold, J. E. (2018) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2018.1424781 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Several reviews have systematised the research on physical disabilities and social participation (Imms 2008; Pratt, Baker, and Gaebler-Spira 2008; Shikako-Thomas et al. 2008; Bottcher 2010; Bult et al. 2011; Piškur et al. 2012).”
BackgroundA DisCrit-Informed Critique of the Difference vs. Disorder Approach in Speech-Language Pathology
Yu, B., Epstein, L., & Tisi, V. (2021) · Advances in linguistics and communication studies · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7134-7.ch006 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Morgan, P. L., & Farkas, G. (2016) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.17988/0198-7429-41.2.122 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Is Dis-Ability a Foregone Conclusion? Research and Policy Solutions to Disproportionality
Cruz, R. A., Voulgarides, C. K., Firestone, A. R., McDermott, L., & Feng, Z. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231212935 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“(Shifrer et al., 2011, p. 254) These articles argued that, although schools must be equipped with resources that enable students to thrive, federal policy must dismantle the reproduction of societal hierarchies that function at the core of a neoliberal, capitalist society.”
Mallett, C. A., Quinn, L., Yun, J., et al. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221081024 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“This disproportionate impact has been the case for decades (Burrell & Warboys, 2000; Losen & Gillespie, 2012), with the intersection of poverty, socioeconomic inequalities, and related institutional racism explaining this disparity (Shifrer, 2018; Shifrer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShifrer, D., & Freeman, D. M. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023121998116 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Researchers document how a child’s social background shapes the disabilities youth actually experience (Konkel 2012; Shifrer, Muller, and Callahan 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDoes the ‘Learning Disability’ label lower teachers’ performance expectations?
Kashikar, L., Soemers, L., Lüke, T., & Grosche, M. (2023) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-023-09775-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This group actually carries a threefold risk for lower teachers’ expectations, as it is often low-achieving, comes from families with lower socio-economic status (Shifrer et al., 2011), and has a migration background (Gabel et al.”
BackgroundEnhancing Instruction for English Learners in Response to Intervention Systems: The PLUSS Model
Sanford, A. K., Brown, J. E., & Turner, M. (2012) · PDXScholar (Portland State University) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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“These fears are more than valid, as research has demonstrated race is a predictor of differential diagnosis among youth, with youth of color more likely to be diagnosed with disruptive behavior disorders and learning disabilities compared to white youth (Nguyen et al. 2007; Shifrer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundEnhancing Instruction for English Learners in Response to Intervention Systems
Sanford, A. K., Brown, J. E., & Turner, M. (2012) · Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners · doi:10.56829/muvo.13.1.0780760121003732 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Understanding When Teachers Disagree about Student Disability
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The relationship between behavior at school entry and services received in third grade
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CritSEM: Advancing QuantCrit to Examine Racialized Resegregation in Special Education
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“…of studies and reports, including by the Office for Civil Rights, researchers claim that Black and Latinx students are underrepresented in special education (Morgan, Farkas, Cook, et al., 2017; Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, et al., 2017; Morgan et al., 2015; Shifrer et al., 2011; Wiley et al., 2013).”
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Rasmussen, N. D., & Raskin, C. F. (2021) · Journal of Research on Leadership Education · doi:10.1177/19427751211069149 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Many studies show that Black students are overrepresented in school discipline (Gage et al., 2019; Huang, 2018; Young, Young et al., 2018) and special education (Artiles et al., 2010; Shifrer et al., 2011) and underrepresented in gifted or honors programs (Anderson, 2020; Lamb et al., 2019).”
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School Climate and the Latino-White Achievement Gap
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On the diagnosis of learning disabilities in the Austrian school system
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- Authors
- Shifrer, D., Muller, C., & Callahan, R.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Shifrer, Dara
- Venue
- Journal of Learning Disabilities
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 246-257
- ISSN
- 0022-2194 (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4780
- PMC
- PMC4133990
- OpenAlex
- W2111405197
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 8.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Learning Disabilities (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0834177, 5 T32 HD007081, 5 R24 HD042849, 0965444)
- University of Texas at Austin (R24HD042849, 5 R24 HD042849, 5 T32 HD007081)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R24HD042849, T32HD007081)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- learning disabilities, disproportionality, special education identification, race, socioeconomic status, language minority students, African American students, Hispanic students, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, gender differences, academic accommodations
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Black or African American, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Language, Learning Disabilities, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Social Class, United States, Multivariate Analysis
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