How “Real” Are Computer Personalities?: Psychological Responses to Personality Types in Human-Computer Interaction
Abstract
How “real” are computer personalities? Using a psychological criterion for “reality,” 2 studies tested whether people respond to computer personalities the same way they tend to respond to human personalities. In Experiment 1, dominant and submissive subjects were randomly matched with a computer endowed with the personality characteristics associated with dominance or submissiveness (N = 48). Consistent with similarity-attraction theory in interpersonal interaction, subjects were more attracted to the similar computer compared to the dissimilar computer. Experiment 2 (N = 88) used the same experimental design to assess users' psychological responses to changes in personality-based behavior in computers. Consistent with gain-loss theory in interpersonal interaction, changes in the direction of similarity had a more positive effect on attraction than a consistently similar personality. Loss effects were not obtained. The findings suggest that computer personalities are psychologically real to users.
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In human-computer interaction contexts, when presented with a technology possessing cues normally associated with human behavior, individuals respond by exhibiting social behavior and making anthropomorphic attributions.
“In HCI contexts, when presented with a technology possessing cues that are normally associated with human behavior (e.g., language, turn-taking, interactivity), individuals respond by exhibiting social behavior and making anthropomorphic attributions (Epley et al. 2007; Moon and Nass 1996; Nass et al. 1995).”
From AI-based chatbots in customer service and their effects on user compliance (2021) · cites this paper as Moon and Nass 1996
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Rafaeli, S., & Noy, A. (2002) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1057/palgrave.ejis.3000434 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Moon and Nass (1996; 1998) and Nass et al (1999) have investigated the attribution and personality aspects of reactions to computers, reporting generally that virtual representations are accepted as social, and that people react to computer mediated social phenomena as they would to real people in…”
BackgroundLee, E. (2008) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2008.07.009 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Incorporating personality in user interface design: A review
Alves, T., Natálio, J., Henriques‐Calado, J., & Gama, S. P. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109709 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Franke, C., & Groeppel-Klein, A. (2024) · Journal of business research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114916 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Minding the source: toward an integrative theory of human–machine communication
Lee, E.-J. (2023) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqad034 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Lee, E. (2010) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650209356389 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Moon, Y. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.5.4.379 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationMotivating, Influencing, and Persuading Users
Fogg, B. J., Danielson, D. R., & Cuellar, G. (2007) · Human factors and ergonomics · doi:10.1201/9781410615862.ch7 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Newsbots That Mediate Journalist and Audience Relationships
Ford, H., & Hutchinson, J. P. (2019) · Digital Journalism · doi:10.1080/21670811.2019.1626752 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“In their experimental research on computer personality, for example, Moon and Nass (1996) found that it was possible to operationalise a computer’s personality using “a rudimentary, text-based system with scripted responses” (668) and that their research participants recognised computer…”
BackgroundRacism, responsibility and autonomy in HCI: Testing perceptions of an AI agent
Hong, J.-W., & Williams, D. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.06.012 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The Effects of Anthropomorphism and Non-verbal Social Behaviour in Virtual Assistants
Kontogiorgos, D., Pereira, A., Andersson, O., Koivisto, M., Rabal, E. G., Vartiainen, V., & Gustafson, J. (2019) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA) · doi:10.1145/3308532.3329466 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“The additional comfort comes from ascribing human features to machines with the aim to simplify the complexity of technology [35, 39].”
Backgroundvon der Pütten, A. M., Krämer, N. C., & Gratch, J. S. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15892-6_23 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Similarity effects in online training: Effects with computerized trainer agents
Behrend, T. S., & Thompson, L. F. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.016 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Development of an Instrument to Measure Web Site Personality
Chen, Q., & Rodgers, S. (2006) · Journal of Interactive Advertising · doi:10.1080/15252019.2006.10722124 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“The literature also has begun to examine how consumers interact with computers and initial studies suggest that this interaction is much like another human being, so much so that computer personalities are viewed as "real" to consumers (Moon and Nass 1996).”
BackgroundSocial Boundaries for Personal Agents in the Interpersonal Space of the Home
Luria, M., Zheng, R., Huffman, B., Huang, S., Zimmerman, J., & Forlizzi, J. (2020) · Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376311 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Research also supports this prediction, as it shows that matching VAPA personality [28], preferences [2], humor type and interaction style [3] can all benefit interaction and engagement, and shape a positive attitude towards social agents.”
ResultDifferential social attributions toward computing technology: An empirical investigation
Johnson, R. D., Marakas, G. M., & Palmer, J. W. (2005) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2005.09.002 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…language, respond based on multiple prior inputs, fill roles traditionally held by humans and are capable of producing human-sounding voices (Moon and Nass, 1996); prior to the widespread application of computing technologies, these social cues were uniquely associated with other humans.”
BackgroundKallinen, K., & Ravaja, N. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.10.014 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…& Nash, 1996), and tend to interact with computers and media persons in the same way as when communicating faceto-face with real persons (see e.g., Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass & Moon, 2000), it would be interesting to study the effects of a close (i.e., headphone listening) versus a far (i.e.,…”
BackgroundLi, Z., & Li, C. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.016 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…Nass et al., 1999; Tzeng, 2006), self/other attribution (Moon, 2003; Nass & Steuer, 1993; Nass et al., 1994), gender stereotypes (Nass, Moon, & Green, 1997; Nass et al., 1994), personality (Isbister & Nass, 2000; Moon & Nass, 1996), reciprocity (Fogg & Nass, 1997), and self-disclosure (Moon, 2000).”
This Computer Responds to User Frustration Theory, Design, Results, and Implications
Klein, J., Moon, Y., & Picard, R. W. (2002) · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividuality and alignment in generated dialogues
Isard, A., Brockmann, C., & Oberlander, J. (2006) · International Conference on Natural Language Generation · doi:10.3115/1706269.1706277 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Impertinent mobiles - Effects of politeness and impoliteness in human-smartphone interaction
Carolus, A., Muench, R., Schmidt, C., & Schneider, F. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.030 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Sohn, D. (2011) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444811405806 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“…(e.g. politeness) when interacting with a computer and television (Reeves and Nass, 1996), think as if computers/robots could have their own personalities like people (Moon and Nass, 1996), and use various media with similar objectives for interpersonal interaction (Papacharissi and Rubin, 2000).”
Baek, T. H., Kim, H. J., & Kim, J. (2025) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2025.104106 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Hantula, D. A., Kock, N., D’Arcy, J. P., & DeRosa, D. M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92784-6_13 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Further, natural sounding speech from a computer evokes attributions associated with humans (Nass and Steuer 1993) and computer personalities are “real” to users in the same way that human personalities are ( Moon and Nass 1996; Nass and Moon 2000).”
BackgroundSocial Presence and Children: Praise, Intrinsic Motivation, and Learning With Computers
Bracken, C. C., & Lombard, M. (2004) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02611.x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Social facilitation and human–computer interaction
Hall, B., & Henningsen, D. D. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.05.003 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Christoforakos, L., Feicht, N., Hinkofer, S., Löscher, A., Schlegl, S., & Diefenbach, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2021.689999 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Stern, S. E., Mullennix, J. W., & Yaroslavsky, I. (2005) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2005.07.002 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“, 1996), are imbued with personalities by the people who interact with them (Moon and Nass, 1996), and are subject to gender stereotypes by users (Nass et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTorres, M. D. R. M., Fernández, M. D. C. D., Toral, S. L., & Barrero, F. (2014) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2014.02.004 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Exploring users’ social responses to computer counseling interviewers’ behavior
Kang, S., & Gratch, J. S. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.006 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Yoo, K., & Ulrike Gretzel, B. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-85820-3_14 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Affective Natural Language Generation
de Rosis, F., & Grasso, F. (2000) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/10720296_15 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Studies have proven that, although conscious of being interacting with a machine, humans have a clear perception of the computer system’s personality [20,8].”
BackgroundKim, T., & Song, H. (2022) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2022.2049134 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This scenario is widely used in human-computer interaction studies, including the perception of computer personality (Moon & Nass, 1996), human-computer teaming (Nass et al., 1996), and the credibility of the computer (Burgoon et al., 2000).”
MethodInteractive Consumer Decision Aids
Murray, K. B., & Häubl, G. (2008) · International series in management science/operations research/International series in operations research & management science · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78213-3_3 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Along the same lines, there is an interesting body of research that examines the social nature of the interactions between humans and computers that has the potential to inform the design of ICDAs for long-term relationships with consumers (e.g., Moon and Nass 1996; Nass et al. 1996).”
BackgroundBracken, C. C., Jeffres, L. W., & Neuendorf, K. A. (2004) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/1094931041291358 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Woods, R., & Keeler, J. (2001) · Open Learning The Journal of Open Distance and e-Learning · doi:10.1080/02680510120084977 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Live support by chatbots with artificial intelligence: A future research agenda
Camilleri, M. A., & Troise, C. (2022) · Service Business · doi:10.1007/s11628-022-00513-9 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Such conversational agents are programed with certain cues, features and attributes that are normally associated with humans (Melián-González et al. 2021; Moon and Nass 1996; Pillai and Sivathanu 2020; Schanke et al. 2021; Schuetzler et al. 2020).”
BackgroundPütten, A. M. R.-V. D., Straßmann, C., Yaghoubzadeh, R., Kopp, S., & Krämer, N. C. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.047 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Designing Personas for Expressive Robots
Whittaker, S., Rogers, Y., Petrovskaya, E., & Zhuang, H. (2021) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3424153 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Shank, D. B. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.006 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“…psychological processes, and experimental methodologies (Brave et al., 2005; Groom & Nass, 2007; Isbister & Nass, 2000; Kim & Sundar, 2012; Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass, Fogg, & Moon, 1996; Nass & Moon, 2000; Nass, Moon, Fogg, Reeves, & Dryer, 1995; Nass & Reeves, 1996; Nass & Steuer, 1993;…”
The media equation and team formation: Further evidence for experience as a moderator
Johnson, D. M., & Gardner, J. (2006) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.08.007 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Design Metaphors for Understanding User Expectations of Socially Interactive Robot Embodiments
Dennler, N. S., Ruan, C., Hadiwijoyo, J., Chen, B., Nikolaidis, S., & Matarić, M. J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3550489 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The quality of human-automation cooperation in human-system interface for nuclear power plants
Skjerve, A. B., & Skraaning, G. (2004) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2004.06.001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Pan, W., Liu, D., Meng, J., & Liu, H. (2024) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448241259149 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Other research has focused on the perceived similarities in personalities between humans and chatbots/machines affecting humans’ liking and evaluations of the chatbots’ machines (e.g., Moon and Nass, 1996; Nass et al., 1996).”
- Authors
- MOON, Y., & NASS, C.
- Venue
- Communication Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1996-12
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 651-674
- ISSN
- 0093-6502 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3810
- OpenAlex
- W2110531388
- Cited by
- 291
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 7.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Communication Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI in Service Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
- Keywords
- person perception, similarity attraction, interpersonal attraction, human-computer interaction
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