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Unpacking “Sexting”: A Systematic Review of Nonconsensual Sexting in Legal, Educational, and Psychological Literatures
Abstract
Concerns about sexting are increasingly prevalent in mainstream and academic media despite limited and inconsistent research findings about the practice. Much of this discourse centers around harm and sexting is commonly considered to be a risky behavior. A driving factor in these discussions is the apparent conflation of consensual and nonconsensual acts or sexting behaviors. A systematic review was conducted to determine the extent to which consensual and nonconsensual acts were conflated in the legal, educational, and psychological literatures on sexting, and how nonconsensual sexting was conceptualized within these disciplines. Definitions of sexting varied widely with regard to the inclusion or exclusion of nonconsensual acts. Nonconsensual acts were conceptualized in the following ways: as a risk of sexing, as being the fault of the victim, as bullying, or as a form of violence against women. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
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“More recently, researchers have pushed to separate definitions of sexting according to degrees of consent (Slane, 2010; Slane, 2013; Krieger, 2017).”
From Young people's experiences of image-based sexual harassment and abuse in England and Canada: Toward a feminist framing of technologically facilitated sexual violence (2022) · cites this paper as Krieger, 2017
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Visual gossiping: non-consensual ‘nude’ sharing among young people in Denmark
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“Together with the possibility of non-consensual sharing and the public focus on girls’ victimisation, this has led to a risk management discourse in which girls’ sexting in particular is framed as sexual risk behaviour rather than an extension of their sexual agency (Draper 2012; Angelides 2013; Hasinoff 2014; Karaian…”
BackgroundTeenagers, Sexting, and the Law
Strasburger, V. C., Zimmerman, H., Temple, J. R., & Madigan, S. L. (2019) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3183 · Cited by 89
“Forwarding sexts without consent may represent a potential form of cyberbullying and should not be excused or tolerated.(11,15,67) Yet, this behavior does not seem to rise to the level of actual child pornography unless such images fall into the hands of adults, in which case the onus falls on the adult who retains, p…”
BackgroundDöring, N. M., & Mohseni, M. R. (2018) · International Journal of Sexual Health · doi:10.1080/19317611.2018.1491921 · Cited by 72
“So far, 10 literature reviews about sexting are available (Anastassiou, 2017; Cooper, Quayle, Jonsson, & Svedin, 2016; Courtice & Shaughnessy, 2017; Klettke et al., 2014; Kosenko, Luurs, & Binder, 2017; Krieger, 2017; Lewis et al., 2013; Madigan, Ly, Rash, van Ouytsel, & Temple, 2018; van Ouytsel, Walrave, Ponnet, & H…”
BackgroundSexting and Young People: A Review of the Qualitative Literature
Anastassiou, A. (2017) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2017.2951 · Cited by 76
Mandau, M. B. H. (2021) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2020.1848892 · Cited by 68
“Several studies have shown how discourses on youth sexting have framed IBSA as the result of foolish, naïve, hormone-driven, teen girl behavior and propagated victim blaming (Angelides, 2013; Draper, 2012; Hasinoff, 2015; Krieger, 2017).”
BackgroundClancy, E. M., Klettke, B., Hallford, D. J., Crossman, A. M., Maas, M. K., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106460 · Cited by 69
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“A recent systematic review of nonconsensual distribution of sexting images highlights how legal, psychological, and educational literatures commonly use language that minimizes the actions of the offender (typically male) and characterizes such incidents as provoked and an inevitable outcome of youthful indiscretions…”
BackgroundDavid Finkelhor, B., Turner, H. A., Colburn, D., Mitchell, K. J., & Mathews, B. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106269 · Cited by 57
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“By separat-ing these digital forms of sexual harassment from consensual sexting behaviours, we argue that we can better understand and target teens’ experiences of online harm, without suppressing their agency (Krieger, 2017; Lippman & Campbell, 2014; Slane, 2009, 2010).”
InfluentialRingrose, J., & Regehr, K. (2023) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12575 · Cited by 54
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“…on (legally and culturally) fighting the issue of non-consensual image sharing, an abstinence-based approach has been promoted, which emphasizes the importance of refraining from engaging in the production or distribution of sexually explicit images (Döring, 2014; Krieger, 2017; Setty et al. 2022).”
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“This can result in victim blaming [31,33] and has led to abstinence-based interventions, which have been found to be ineffective in curbing harmful sexting behaviours [11].”
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“An iterative approach was used to fit a series of latent profiles for the eleven continuous sexting indicator variables in Mplus version 8.6 (Muthen & Muthen, 1998/2017).”
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“That is, along with the legitimacy of sexting among young adults as part of their engagement in sex and sexuality, sexting may also have negative repercussions, including bullying or non-consensual dissemination of content (Krieger, 2017).”
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Clancy, E. M., Hallford, D. J., March, E., Howard, D., Toumbourou, J. W., & Klettke, B. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231163886 · Cited by 11
“harassment, and image-based sexual abuse (Henry & Powell, 2015; Henry et al., 2019; Krieger, 2017; Powell et al., 2019), and this behavior is typically criminalized in jurisdictions across Australia, the United States and United Kingdom.”
BackgroundLongitudinal Sexting Research: A Systematic Review
Hu, Y., Clancy, E. M., & Klettke, B. (2023) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych5020035 · Cited by 14
“These results are consistent with previous reviews which found that sexting behaviours are strongly influenced by peer endorsement and peer pressure [2,5,7].”
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Sciacca, B., Mazzone, A., Loftsson, M., Norman, J. O., & Foody, M. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x241230639 · Cited by 10
“Much of the research on this topic frames sexting as a risky behavior, linking it to harmful outcomes in terms of mental health (Barrense-Dias et al., 2017; Krieger, 2017; Symons et al., 2018).”
Sexting Among Australian Adolescents: Risk and Protective Factors
Howard, D., Jarman, H. K., Clancy, E. M., Renner, H. M., Smith, R., Rowland, B., Toumbourou, J. W., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., & Klettke, B. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01827-1 · Cited by 12
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“perpetration, and legal prosecution (Clancy et al., 2019; Klettke et al., 2019, 2014; Krieger, 2017; Mori et al., 2019; Reed et al., 2020).”
Ruvalcaba, Y., Kollar, L. M. M., Jones, S. E., Mercado, M. C., Leemis, R. W., & Ma, Z.-Q. (2022) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/josh.13290 · Cited by 13
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What are you looking at? Body image esteem and sexting behaviors among emerging Australian adults
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Children and sexting: The case for intergenerational co-learning
Lee, N., Tufte‐Hewett, A., Jørgensen, C. H. R., Turner, J., Wade, A., & Weckesser, A. (2018) · Childhood · doi:10.1177/0907568218777305 · Cited by 8
“In many discussions, wanted and unwanted sexting (Drouin and Tobin, 2014), as well as consensual and non-consensual sexting (Kreiger, 2016), are conflated, making it difficult to determine the contexts in which sexting may be considered risky, whether physically or psychologically.”
BackgroundOpinions of Adolescents on Prevention Related to Sexting: a Q-Methodology Study
Barrense‐Dias, Y., Akré, C., Surı́s, J.-C., & Berchtold, A. (2020) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-020-00431-3 · Cited by 13
“This lack of a clear definition may lead to assimilation of consensual and nonconsensual sexting (Krieger, 2017) and diverging awareness messages.”
BackgroundGarner, A. R., Brem, M. J., Shorey, R. C., Hamlin, J. S., & Stuart, G. L. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107385 · Cited by 7
Montanaro, E. A., Temple, J., Ersoff, M., Jules, B. N., Jaliawala, M., Kinkopf, D., Webb, S., & Bowling, J. (2024) · Sexes · doi:10.3390/sexes5010002 · Cited by 7
“The expectation that sexting leads to sexual activity may contribute to other risks associated with misunderstood or poor sexual communication, including a lack of clarity on consent for sexual acts [50].”
BackgroundMiguel-Álvaro, A., Martínez‐Bacaicoa, J., Wachs, S., & Gámez‐Guadix, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-024-01071-7 · Cited by 11
“In contrast, nonconsensual pornography, also known as revenge porn or nonconsensual sexting, refers to the unauthorized sharing of sexually explicit images with motivations that extend beyond revenge (Krieger, 2017; Wachs et al., 2021).”
Technology-Mediated Sexual Interactions, Social Anxiety, and Sexual Wellbeing: A Scoping Review
Shaughnessy, K., Fehr, C., Ashley, M., Braham, J., Labelle, P., Ouimet, A. J., Corsini‐Munt, S., Ashbaugh, A. R., & Reissing, E. D. (2022) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe12080066 · Cited by 7
Garrido‐Macías, M., Herrera, A., Alonso-Ferres, M., & Herrera, M. C. (2023) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.514431 · Cited by 7
“These consequences affect women more negatively, because the free expression of women’s sexuality is not in accordance with established social norms (Krieger, 2017; Rodríguez-Castro et al., 2018).”
BackgroundDacka, M. (2024) · Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna · doi:10.15557/pipk.2024.0011 · Cited by 6
Sexting coercion within romantic context: a test of Akers’ social learning theory
Dodaj, A., & Sesar, K. (2023) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2023.2182377 · Cited by 6
“In addition, men also experience pressure when sexting, but in the form of attaining peer (nor partner) approval (Krieger, 2017) or arise from a fear of social exclusion.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential‘It’s a generational thing, really’. Understandings of sexual rights in a digital age
Spišák, S. (2023) · Sexualities · doi:10.1177/13634607231160058 · Cited by 5
“However, we also have to acknowledge ‘ the dark side of sexting ’ (Clancy et al., 2019; Krieger, 2017), including the potential risk of image-based sexual violence, abuse or harassment (Ringrose et al., 2021; Dobson, 2019).”
The Role of Psychosocial Factors in Youth Sexting: A Multi-Country Analysis of Risk Perception
Gennari, F., Büchi, M., Guedes, A. C., Schafer, M., & Kardefelt‐Winther, D. (2025) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2025.01.008 · Cited by 6
O’Connor, K. W., & Drouin, M. A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-78440-3_50 · Cited by 5
Relationship between sexting and self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and stress among young peoplePreprint
Galanis, P., Katsiroumpa, Z., Katsiroumpa, A., Tsakalaki, A., & Vasilopoulos, S. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.02.01.23285354 · Cited by 4
“Sexting is essentially defined as sending and receiving personal material with sexual content via mobile phones, social media, websites and platforms (Krieger, 2017).”
BackgroundExplaining Image-Based Sexual Abuse: An Application of Cyber Routine Activity Theory
Laskovtsov, A., & Boyle, K. M. (2025) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2025.2485125 · Cited by 3
“…taken consensually and shared with a consenting partner or acquaintance, who then maliciously posts or distributes it to others without consent; alternatively that consensual image may be obtained through more nefarious means, such as cyberhacking and data breaching (Franks, 2017; Krieger, 2017).”
Sexting motivations and health outcomes in adolescent sexual minority males
Rosa, C. D., Bragard, E., & Fisher, C. B. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108787 · Cited by 3
Gender Differences in Image-Based Sexual Abuse and Cyberbullying Victimization
Hu, Y., Clancy, E. M., & Klettke, B. (2025) · International Journal of Bullying Prevention · doi:10.1007/s42380-025-00329-x · Cited by 3
Unsolicited Sexting and Help-Seeking Behaviours among Australian Adults: A Mixed-Methods Study
Howard, D., Ryter, S., Hu, Y., Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., & Klas, A. (2024) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci13060289 · Cited by 5
“Further, women and girls, relative to men and boys, were more likely to be criticised and blamed for their sexting experiences, even if their ‘engagement’ was non-consensual, passive and entailed receipt of sexts as opposed to active sending of such material (Krieger 2017; Salter 2016).”
BackgroundDavid Finkelhor, B., Colburn, D., Gewirtz‐Meydan, A., O’Brien, J. E., Jones, L. M., Turner, H. A., & Mitchell, K. J. (2026) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/10790632261415819 · Cited by 2
“Several malicious contexts qualify as abusive even though not all are necessarily images of a sexual crime (Krieger, 2017).”
Public perceptions and legal dimensions of juvenile sexting
Call, C. P. (2023) · Journal of Social Behavioral and Health Sciences · doi:10.5590/jsbhs.2023.17.1.14 · Cited by 2
Steele-Baser, M., Allen, C. T., Mercado, M. C., Cooper, A. C., & Wagner, R. (2024) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-024-02989-0 · Cited by 3
“Nonetheless, the noncon-sensual forwarding of sexts is recognized as an inherent risk of consensual sexting, making it difficult to determine their differential impact on youth outcomes (Krieger, 2017).”
Greek sexting landscape: Uncovering consequences beyond the selfie
Ntountoumi, L., Ιωάννου, Μ., Synnott, J., Tzani, C., Morelli, M., Chirumbolo, A., & Drouin, M. (2024) · Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling · doi:10.1002/jip.1642 · Cited by 3
Lebedíková, M. Š., Olveira-Araujo, R., Subrahmanyam, K., & Šmahel, D. (2025) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448251333731 · Cited by 2
“Analyzing sexting behaviors separately is important to determine if harm is solely linked to non-consensual sexting (Krieger, 2016).”
Forster, B., Catterall, J., & CLOUGH, A. R. (2021) · Journal of Health Information and Libraries Australasia · doi:10.55999/johila.v2i1.49 · Cited by 2
“…neuroscience in criminal judgement and sentencing (Chandler et al., 2019); another analysed the effect on women’s health of United States TRAP laws (Austin & Harper, 2018); yet 2(1), Apr 2021 20 another looked at non-consensual ‘sexting’ in the psychological and legal literature (Krieger, 2017).”
BackgroundGirls Navigating the Context of Unwanted Dick Pics: ‘Some Things Just Can’t Be Unseen’
Barker-Clarke, E. (2023) · Youth · doi:10.3390/youth3030060 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Krieger, M. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Windsor (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Krieger, Michelle A.
- ORCID
- Krieger, Michelle A.
- Venue
- Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-07-19
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 593-601
- ISSN
- 1524-8380 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8324
- OpenAlex
- W2497505743
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 1.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trauma Violence & Abuse (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Stalking, Cyberstalking, and Harassment
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Keywords
- sexting, sexual violence, violence against women, bullying, victim blaming, risk-taking, legal definitions, educational discourse
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Male, Risk-Taking, Sexual Behavior, Sex Offenses, Internet, Cell Phone, Bullying, Text Messaging, Social Media
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