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Advancing the Science of Collaborative Problem Solving
Open accessAbstract
Collaborative problem solving (CPS) has been receiving increasing international attention because much of the complex work in the modern world is performed by teams. However, systematic education and training on CPS is lacking for those entering and participating in the workforce. In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a global test of educational progress, documented the low levels of proficiency in CPS. This result not only underscores a significant societal need but also presents an important opportunity for psychological scientists to develop, adopt, and implement theory and empirical research on CPS and to work with educators and policy experts to improve training in CPS. This article offers some directions for psychological science to participate in the growing attention to CPS throughout the world. First, it identifies the existing theoretical frameworks and empirical research that focus on CPS. Second, it provides examples of how recent technologies can automate analyses of CPS processes and assessments so that substantially larger data sets can be analyzed and so students can receive immediate feedback on their CPS performance. Third, it identifies some challenges, debates, and uncertainties in creating an infrastructure for research, education, and training in CPS. CPS education and assessment are expected to improve when supported by larger data sets and theoretical frameworks that are informed by psychological science. This will require interdisciplinary efforts that include expertise in psychological science, education, assessment, intelligent digital technologies, and policy.
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“Thus, collaboration deficits largely stem from a lack of adequate preparation (Fiore et al., 2018; Graesser et al., 2018).”
From A Feasibility and Implementation Integrity Study of the Community Builder (CoBi): An AI-based Collaboration Support System in K-12 Classrooms (2025) · cites this paper as Graesser et al., 2018
In the citing paper
“Understanding what makes effective collaboration is of crucial importance for professional practice and training (Détienne et al. 2012; Graesser et al. 2018), as evidenced by the long line of research on group or team collaboration over the past 40 years (for a review, see e.g., Salas et al. 2004; Mathieu et al. 2017).”
From Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education (2023) · cites this paper as Graesser et al. 2018
In the citing paper
“Collaborative problem solving—and more generally, collaboration—has gained increasing attention in national and international assessments (e.g., PISA) as an educational priority encompassing social, emotional, and cognitive skills critical to efficiency, effectiveness, and innovation in the modern global economy (Graesser et al. 2018; OECD 2017).”
From Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education (2023) · cites this paper as Graesser et al. 2018
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“…these competencies has taken a principal role in educational policy, research, and technology (Binkley et al., 2011; Care, Scoular, & Griffin, 2016; Graesser et al., 2018c; Graesser, Dowell, & Clewley, 2017; National Research Council, 2011; OECD, 2013; von Davier, Hao, Liu, & Kyllonen, 2017).”
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“In addition to offering a potential alternative to labor-intensive hand-coding of CPS interactions, findings suggest that multimodal regularity could be leveraged to identify and intervene to affect team behavior in real time, an essential step forward in team training (Graesser et al., 2018).”
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Lotrecchiano, G. R., DiazGranados, D., Sprecher, J., McCormack, W. T., Ranwala, D., Wooten, K. C., Lackland, D. T., Billings, H. A., & Brasier, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Clinical and Translational Science · doi:10.1017/cts.2020.551 · Cited by 53
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BackgroundDoherty, E. J., Spencer, C. A., Burnison, J. D., Čeko, M., Chin, J., Eloy, L., Haring, K. S., Kim, P., Pittman, D. J., Powers, S. E., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2023.1059679 · Cited by 53
“Collaborative problem solving (CPS) involves a group of two or more individuals engaging in a coordinated attempt to construct and maintain a joint solution to a problem (Roschelle and Teasley, 1995) and is considered a critical twenty-first century skill, as much of the complex work in the modern world is increasingl…”
BackgroundGenerative AI and Its Educational Implications
Łodzikowski, K., Foltz, P. W., & Behrens, J. T. (2024) · Postdigital Science and Education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64487-0_2 · Cited by 45
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“Studies on CSCL over the past two decades provide important insights into the importance of teamwork and task work processes (Graesser et al., 2018).”
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“…or step to another is an integral part of nearly every learning situation including transversal competencies, such as collaborative problem solving (Graesser et al., 2018; Herborn, Stadler, Mustafić, & Greiff, 2018), scientific inquiry (Chen & Klahr, 1999), or dynamic decision making (Karakul &…”
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“CPS expects students to excel in articulating their proposed solutions, engaging in in-depth discussions, and incorporating multiple perspectives into their final solutions (A. C. Graesser et al., 2018).”
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“…while CPS is a good strategy for students to adopt in computationally-focused activities while learning CT. Due to the benefits and importance of CPS, it is worth developing CPS activities (Graesser et al., 2018) on the BBP online learning platform for students to collaboratively learn CT together.”
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“These changes have motivated the need for curricular reform and national and international assessments to take greater interest in the teaching and assessment of CPS skills (Fiore et al., 2017; Graesser et al., 2018; National Research Council, 2011; OECD, 2013).”
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“to develop team-based research and collaborative problem solving skills, interpersonal and relational skills, and the skills to learn and integrate concepts from others’ disciplines (Bosque-Pérez et al. 2016; Cannon et al. 1996; Graesser et al. 2018).”
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Competencies supporting high-performance translational teams: A review of the SciTS evidence base
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“An assessment tool for collaborative problem-solving has been applied in a 2015 international survey of 500,000 students in 52 countries, and training approaches have been proposed [11].”
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Khan, N. U., Zhong-yi, P., Han, H., & Ariza‐Montes, A. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-01791-y · Cited by 25
Collaborative Problem Solving: Social and Developmental Considerations
Gauvain, M. (2018) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100618813370 · Cited by 23
Strauß, S., Tunnigkeit, I., Eberle, J., Avdullahu, A., & Rummel, N. (2024) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-024-09430-7 · Cited by 23
“The ability to solve problems collaboratively is widely recognized to be of critical importance (Graesser, Fiore et al., 2018a; Graesser, Foltz et al., 2018b; Hesse et al., 2015; van Laar et al., 2017).”
Aslan, S., Alyüz, N., Li, B., Durham, L., Shi, M., Sharma, S., & Nachman, L. (2025) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100393 · Cited by 28
Learning to Diagnose with Simulations
Fischer, F., & Opitz, A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89147-3 · Cited by 26
Challenges home and international students face in group work at a Dutch university
Popov, V., Brinkman, D., Fortuin, K. P. J., Lie, R., & Li, Y. (2022) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2022.2044762 · Cited by 18
“The core focus in engineering is on collaborative technical problem solving to address societal issues, which requires both a cognitive (task work) dimension and a collaborative (teamwork) dimension (Campbell, Roth, and Jornet 2019; Downey et al. 2006; Dym et al. 2005; Graesser et al. 2018).”
BackgroundChopade, P., Edwards, D., Khan, S. M., Andrade, A., & Pu, S. (2019) · IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST) · doi:10.1109/hst47167.2019.9032906 · Cited by 18
“For instance, [14], [15], [20], [21], [22], [23] define CPS as a process that depends on the coordination of cognitive and social skills.”
BackgroundMethodDiagnosing Collaboratively: A Theoretical Model and a Simulation-Based Learning Environment
Radkowitsch, A., Sailer, M., Fischer, M. R., Schmidmaier, R., & Fischer, F. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89147-3_10 · Cited by 18
“A main issue is that in such situations, the collaboration is in fl uenced by variables such as personality, group constellation, or motivation (Graesser et al., 2018).”
BackgroundAssessing verbal interaction of adult learners in computer‐supported collaborative problem solving
Buseyne, S., Rajagopal, K., Danquigny, T., Depaepe, F., Heutte, J., & Raes, A. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13391 · Cited by 18
Exploring graduate students’ collaborative problem-solving in engineering design tasks
Herro, D. C., McNeese, N. J., O’Hara, R., Frady, K. K., & Switzer, D. (2021) · Journal of Engineering Design · doi:10.1080/09544828.2021.1922616 · Cited by 17
“In addition, training programmes, similar to this NRT programme, focusing on graduatelevel interdisciplinary problem solving, with engineering challengesmirroring industry, are a potential way forward to successfully hone collective knowledge and skills to solve complex problems (Bissett-Johnson and Radcliffe 2019; Gr…”
BackgroundInfluentialMulti‐Level Linguistic Alignment in a Dynamic Collaborative Problem‐Solving Task
Duran, N. D., Paige, A., & D’Mello, S. K. (2024) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13398 · Cited by 16
“These tasks often involve solutions that can be arrived at from many possible directions and require creative exploration (Graesser et al., 2018).”
Fostering sustainability through leadership and employee personality traits
Fauzi, ., Basrowi, B., Wulandari, W., & Irviani, R. (2025) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100502 · Cited by 20
Collaboration Analytics Need More Comprehensive Models and Methods: An Opinion Paper
Han, A., Krieger, F., & Greiff, S. (2021) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2021.7288 · Cited by 19
Self-citationRuvalcaba, O., & Rogoff, B. (2022) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101438 · Cited by 20
Gottschling, J., Krieger, F., & Greiff, S. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10010014 · Cited by 15
“ColPS skills are relevant in the contexts in which we interact with others, whether at school, at work, or in our personal lives (Graesser et al. 2018; OECD 2017; and Stadler et al. 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAssign and Appraise: Achieving Optimal Performance in Collaborative Teams
Huang, E., Paccagnan, D., Mei, W., & Bullo, F. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control · doi:10.1109/tac.2022.3156879 · Cited by 15
“However, tackling complex problems, such as scientific research [15], software development [20], or problem solving [12], requires consideration of the team structure, cognitive effects, and interdependencies between team members [9].”
BackgroundD’Mello, S. K., Duran, N., Michaels, A., & Stewart, A. E. B. (2024) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-023-09387-6 · Cited by 14
“…processes, such as establishing common ground (Graesser et al. 2018), maintaining a joint conception of the problem (Roschelle and Teasley 1995; Graesser et al. 2018), sharing ideas (Graesser et al. 2018), forming a plan (Griffin et al. 2012a; Graesser et al. 2018), negotiating among multiple…”
InfluentialMeasuring collaborative problem solving: research agenda and assessment instrument
Pásztor-Kovács, A., Pásztor, A., & Molnár, G. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1999273 · Cited by 14
“Teamwork o ff ers numerous advantages in the case of solving complex problems: increased coverage of knowledge, skills and ideas becomes available through the members of a team (Graesser et al., 2018a; Rosen et al., 2020).”
BackgroundDuarte, I., dos Santos, H. G., & Rodrigues, M. L. (2025) · Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências · doi:10.1590/0001-3765202520241035 · Cited by 15
Wang, M.-D., Matore, M. E. E. M., & Rosli, R. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1523836 · Cited by 50
Richters, C., Stadler, M. J., Radkowitsch, A., Schmidmaier, R., Fischer, M. R., & Fischer, F. (2023) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-023-00151-1 · Cited by 15
“Previous research on collaborative problem solving (e.g., Graesser et al., 2018) has highlighted the need for training in collaboration skills, which form a key competence of the twenty-first century.”
MethodTeamwork doesn’t just happen: Policy recommendations from over half a century of team research
Grote, G., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2023) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/23794607231192734 · Cited by 18
“Graesser and his colleagues have outlined several possible methods for teaching collaborative problem-solving and teamwork skills in schools.(5) Those methods include conducting case-based analyses of realworld teamwork scenarios, as well as reflecting on the practice of working in a team.”
BackgroundInfluentialMatovu, H., Won, M., Hernandez-Alvarado, R. B., Ungu, D., Treagust, D., Tsai, C.-C., Mocerino, M., & Tasker, R. (2024) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-024-10103-1 · Cited by 12
“A sense of cohesion amongst group members and relational history also contribute to collaborative interactions (Graesser et al., 2018; Kreijns et al., 2022).”
Data-Related Ethics Issues in Technologies for Informal Professional Learning
Pammer‐Schindler, V., & Rosé, C. P. (2021) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-021-00259-x · Cited by 17
Headmen, shamans, and mothers: Natural and sexual selection for computational services
Hagen, E. H., Garfield, Z. H., & Lightner, A. D. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2024.106651 · Cited by 15
Automatic Detection of Collaborative States in Small Groups Using Multimodal Features
Bradford, M., Khebour, I., Blanchard, N., & Krishnaswamy, N. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36272-9_69 · Cited by 13
“With CPS, peers can develop a “positive interdependence” [8], but doing so depends on having an effective group dynamic that does not fall into dysfunction.”
BackgroundLiu, Y., Hu, X., Ng, J. T.-D., Ma, Z., & Lai, X. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12842-5 · Cited by 12
“…(CPS) is a socio-cognitive process in which group members utilise their shared knowledge, experiences, and skills, and navigate through a series of steps to reach a mutually agreed-upon solution to a particular problem (Fiore et al., 2017; Graesser et al., 2018; Griffin & Care, 2015; OECD, 2017a).”
Piecing Together Teamwork: A Responsible Approach to an LLM-based Educational Jigsaw Agent
Doherty, E., Perkoff, E. M., von Bayern, S., Zhang, R., Dey, I., Bodzianowski, M., Puntambekar, S., & Hirshfield, L. (2025) · Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713349 · Cited by 12
“…PISA 2015 international collaborative problem solving (CPS) assessment among 15-year-old students across 52 economies found that less than 30% of students demonstrated success on even low complexity problems [60], compelling experts to proclaim a “global defcit” in collaboration skills [28, 33].”
Pöysä‐Tarhonen, J., Häkkinen, P., Tarhonen, P., Näykki, P., & Järvelä, S. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09562-5 · Cited by 12
“Although these methods aid and expand the manual approach, ensuring the accuracy of the outcomes is still requisite (Graesser et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOliver, K. H., Ehrman, J. D., & Marasco, C. C. (2019) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-019-0190-3 · Cited by 12
Process Data in Computer-Based Assessment
Lindner, M. A., & Greiff, S. (2023) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000790 · Cited by 12
Self-citationThe cops model for collaborative problem-solving in mathematics
Fitzsimons, A., & Fhloinn, E. N. (2023) · Irish Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03323315.2023.2189137 · Cited by 11
“…problem-solving within mathematics education often utilises the heuristics developed for individual problem-solving (Bjuland 2004; OECD 2017; Graesser et al. 2018), but a clearly de fi ned set of heuristics speci fi c to collaborative problem-solving in mathematics has not yet been adapted.”
Validating a collaborative problem-solving assessment tool across educational stages
Rojas, M., Nussbaum, M., & Moreno, C. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105228 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Graesser, A. C., Fiore, S. M., Greiff, S., Andrews-Todd, J., Foltz, P. W., & Hesse, F. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Memphis (US)
- University of Central Florida (US)
- University of Luxembourg (LU)
- Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Graesser, Arthur C.
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-11
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 59-92
- ISSN
- 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-1006
- OpenAlex
- W2902754622
- Semantic Scholar
- 6b5206e860f258dc3d228eb498005371c19e809c
- Cited by
- 390
- References
- 160
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 42.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Gothic.net (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research (submittedVersion)
- Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Luxembourg) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Problem and Project Based Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Problem Solving Skills Development
- Keywords
- collaborative problem solving, teamwork, PISA, interdisciplinary research, employee training
- MeSH terms
- Cooperative Behavior, Education, Group Processes, Humans, Models, Psychological, Problem Solving
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