Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
Based on the premise that what people think influences their actions, self-talk strategies have been developed to direct and facilitate human performance. In this article, we present a meta-analytic review of the effects of self-talk interventions on task performance in sport and possible factors that may moderate the effectiveness of self-talk. A total of 32 studies yielding 62 effect sizes were included in the final meta-analytic pool. The analysis revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48). The moderator analyses showed that self-talk interventions were more effective for tasks involving relatively fine, compared with relatively gross, motor demands, and for novel, compared with well-learned, tasks. Instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks than was motivational self-talk; moreover, instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks rather than gross tasks. Finally, interventions including self-talk training were more effective than those not including self-talk training. The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport, encourage the use of self-talk as a strategy to facilitate learning and enhance performance, and provide new research directions.
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Teaching concentration can increase youth athletes' abilities to focus, as can self-talk, and linking the association between positive self-talk and performance in youth athletes is paramount.
“Teaching concentration can increase youth athletes’ abilities to focus, as can self-talk, and linking the association between positive self-talk and performance in youth athletes is paramount (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
From Integrating Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) with Psychological Skills Training (PST): a case study (2025) · cites this paper as Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011
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BackgroundResultInfluentialMental skills training with basic combat training soldiers: A group-randomized trial.
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“Recently, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) using a metaanalytic approach revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48), confirming the effectiveness of self-talk interventions in enhancing task performance.”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citationCognitive Phenomenology, Access to Contents, and Inner Speech
Jorba, M., & Vicente, A. (2014) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Why Self-Talk Is Effective? Perspectives on Self-Talk Mechanisms in Sport
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803634-1.00008-x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationHardy, J., Comoutos, N., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2018) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2017-0141 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationZell, E., Warriner, A. B., & Albarracín, D. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611430164 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Individual differences in self-talk frequency: social isolation and cognitive disruption
Brinthaupt, T. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01088 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Sport psychologists highlight the importance of instructional (e.g., giving directions) and motivational (e.g., psyching oneself up) self-talk as well as other kinds of intrapersonal communication with respect to sport or athletic performance (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011; Latinjak et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMood Profiling for Sustainable Mental Health among Athletes
Terry, P. C., & Parsons-Smith, R. L. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13116116 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Comoutos, N., Haznadar, A., Papaioannou, A. G., Tzioumakis, Y. S., Krommidas, C., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2015.1074630 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationCheng, W.-N. K., & Hardy, L. (2015) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.07.006 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Recent research findings using meta-analysis suggest that self-talk strategies can make a valuable contribution to skill acquisition, learning, and task performance enhancement in sport (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis, & Theodorakis, 2011).”
MethodFrom the Lab to the Field: Effects of Self-Talk on Task Performance Under Distracting Conditions
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., Charachousi, F., & Sánchez, X. (2017) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2017-0017 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationGoal-Directed and Spontaneous Self-Talk in Anger- and Anxiety-Eliciting Sport-Situations
Latinjak, A. T., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Comoutos, N. (2016) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2016.1213330 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationLane, A. M., Totterdell, P., Macdonald, I. A., Devonport, T. J., Friesen, A. P., Beedie, C., Stanley, D. M., & Nevill, A. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00413 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Goal-directed self-talk used to self-regulate in male basketball competitions
Latinjak, A. T., Torregrossa, M., Comoutos, N., Hernando-Gimeno, C., & Ramis, Y. (2019) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2018.1561967 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Additionally, self-talk may prevent from anxiety by reappraising the meaning of the situation (Gross, 2002) and by promoting self-efficacy (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe activity view of inner speech
Manrique, F. M., & Vicente, A. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00232 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Consider the example of an athlete telling herself motivating words (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundTurner, M. J., Kirkham, L., & Wood, A. G. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.012 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The intricacies of verbalizations, gestures, and game outcome using sequential analysis
Comoutos, N., Tzioumakis, Y. S., Araújo, D., Καλάρογλου, Σ., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Papaioannou, A. G., & Theodorakis, Y. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.12.003 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Recently, Jeong (2012) proposed that sequential analysis would enable researchers to model patterns of cognitive processes observed in training or competition.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMind and body: psychophysiological profiles of instructional and motivational self-talk
Bellomo, E., Cooke, A., Gallicchio, G., Ring, C., & Hardy, J. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13586 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Alternatively, the influence of motivational self-talk on EEG frontal asymmetry might be clearer if researchers incorporated gross motor skills into their studies, for which this type of self-talk has been demonstrated to be more effective (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBeat the heat: effects of a motivational self-talk intervention on endurance performance
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Bartura, K., Argiropoulos, C., Comoutos, N., Galanis, E., & D. Flouris, A. (2018) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2017.1395930 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“This postulation has received partial support in subsequent studies (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, & Zourbanos, 2004) and the meta-analysis (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationMarjanović, M., Comoutos, N., & Papaioannou, A. G. (2019) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-019-09760-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-talk interventions for athletes: A theoretically grounded approach
Raalte, J. L. V., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. W. (2016) · Journal of Sport Psychology in Action · doi:10.1080/21520704.2016.1233921 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Dickens, Y. L., Van Raalte, J., & Hurlburt, R. T. (2018) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2016-0073 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-talk and emotions in tennis players during competitive matches
Fritsch, J., Jekauc, D., Elsborg, P., Latinjak, A. T., Reichert, M., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2022) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2020.1821406 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationCountering the Consequences of Ego Depletion: The Effects of Self-Talk on Selective Attention
Gregersen, J., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Galanis, E., Comoutos, N., & Papaioannou, A. G. (2017) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2016-0265 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“This effect size was estimated considering the effect size identified in the meta-analysis (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) for studies where fine tasks requiring attention were used and self-talk training was implemented.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe influence of self-talk on challenge and threat states and performance
Hase, A., Hood, J., Moore, L. J., & Freeman, P. B. (2019) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101550 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Achievement goals and self-talk in physical education: The moderating role of perceived competence
Comoutos, N., Papaioannou, A. G., Argyropoulou, E., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9378-x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationThe executive mind: leader self‐talk, effectiveness and strain
Rogelberg, S. G., Justice, L. M., Braddy, P. W., Paustian‐Underdahl, S. C., Heggestad, E. D., Shanock, L. R., Baran, B. E., Beck, T. E., Long, S. D., Andrew, A. M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941311300702 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“While meta-analyses involving athlete self-talk and athletic performance yield small correlations nearly identical to what was found here (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), the practical value of self-talk is highly emphasized as a differentiator between very good and great athletic performance (Gee,…”
BackgroundKim, H.-D., & Cruz, A. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.691974 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The relationship between self-talk and affective processes in sports: a scoping review
Fritsch, J., Feil, K., Jekauc, D., Latinjak, A. T., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2022) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2021.2021543 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“In contrast to the vast amount of studies indicating that self-talk interventions have a positive e ff ect on sport performance (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), this review revealed only six studies involving a self-talk intervention on a ff ective processes.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationAyrancı, M., & Aydın, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0330862 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Godin, G., Bélanger‐Gravel, A., Vézina‐Im, L., Amireault, S., & Bilodeau, A. (2012) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.671617 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Examination of Courage Levels and Mental Toughness Conditions of Professional Wrestlers
Güvendi, B., Işım, A. T., Güçlü, M., & Konter, E. (2018) · International Journal of Sport Exercise & Training Sciences · doi:10.18826/useeabd.424017 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Goal-Directed Self-Talk Interventions: A Single-Case Study With an Elite Athlete
Latinjak, A. T., Font‐Lladó, R., Comoutos, N., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2016) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2015-0120 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Investigation of Elite Athletes’ Psychological Resilience
Özdemir, N. (2019) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v7i10.4323 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Hence, it was revealed in the studies conducted that self-talk and imagination increased performance and facilitated learning (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011; Beauchamp et al., 2002; Grushko et al., 2016).”
Metacognitive Confidence Can Increase but Also Decrease Performance in Academic Settings
Moreno, L., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2021) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-021-09270-y · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“This initial induction was based on extensive literature on sport performance showing that what athletes say to themselves prior to or during performance can influence their performance outcome (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011; Tod et al., 2011; Van Raalte et al., 2016).”
Examining the stress-burnout relationship: the mediating role of negative thoughts
Chang, K.-H., Lu, F. J., Chyi, T., Hsu, Y.-W., Chan, S., & Wang, E. T. W. (2017) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.4181 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Psychosocial factors as predictors of dropout in ultra-trailers
Corrion, K., Morales, V., Bergamaschi, A., Massiéra, B., Morin, J.-B., & d’Arripe-Longueville, F. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206498 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Effects of a strategic self-talk intervention on attention functions
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., Papaioannou, A., Morres, I. D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2021.1963304 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of the relevant studies (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) has revealed a moderate e ff ect size ( d = .48).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKim, J., Kwon, J. H., Kim, E. J., Kim, E. J., Kim, H. E., Kyeong, S.-H., & Kim, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-94328-9 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Shi, X., Brinthaupt, T. M., & McCree, M. (2017) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.1177/0276236617708740 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cooper, K. B., Wilson, M., & Jones, M. I. (2020) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2020.1735574 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…approach rather than a group-based approach, because the meaning associated with a specific self-talk strategy is idiosyncratic (Hardy, 2006) and prior systematic reviews of strategic self-talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011) have called for research designs to be targeted to the end user.”
BackgroundThe Effects of Overt Head Movements on Physical Performance After Positive Versus Negative Self-Talk
Horcajo, J., Paredes, B., Higuero, G., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2019) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2018-0208 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-leadership strategies and career success: insight on sports organizations
Megheirkouni, M. (2018) · Sport Business and Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/sbm-02-2018-0006 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Inner speech and “pure” Thought – do we think in language?
Kompa, N. A. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-023-00678-w · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“If that were so, one could venture to guess that if we engage in silent self-talk, we do so merely for reasons of social etiquette, as audible self-talk is commonly frowned upon (cf. Hatzigeorgiadis et al. 2011 for a discussion of overt and covert self-talk in sports performance).”
Kim, T. Y., & Kim, J. (2021) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2021.02.003 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Sources and Maintenance of Professional Golfers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Valiante, G., & Morris, D. B. (2013) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.27.2.130 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Strengthening the assessment of self‐talk in sports through a multi‐method approach
Muynck, G.-J. D., Soenens, B., Delrue, J., Comoutos, N., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.13609 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The effects of a self-talk intervention on elementary students’ motor task performance
Comoutos, N., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Bardas, D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2012) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.693487 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat do youth tennis athletes say to themselves? Observed and self-reported self-talk on the court
Thibodeaux, J., & Winsler, A. (2018) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.006 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“After such interventions, players are often asked to report what phrases they used during the experiment (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Closer Look at How Self-Talk Influences Skilled Basketball Performance
Abdoli, B., Hardy, J., Riyahi, J. F., & Farsi, A. (2018) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2016-0162 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Georgakaki, S. K., & Karakasidou, E. (2017) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2017.85044 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Murdoch, E. M., Lines, R. L. J., Crane, M. F., Ntoumanis, N., Brade, C. J., Quested, E., Ayers, J., & Gucciardi, D. F. (2021) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2021.1977974 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…evidence on the e ff ectiveness of individual categories of stress regulation interventions such as mindfulness (Bühl-mayer et al., 2017), self-talk (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), slow-paced breathing realised with heart rate variability biofeedback (Lehrer et al., 2020), and relaxation (Pelka…”
BackgroundInfluentialGnacinski, S. L., Meyer, B. B., Cornell, D. J., Mims, J., Zalewski, K. R., & Ebersole, K. T. (2015) · International journal of exercise science · doi:10.70252/fcdc4147 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Basset, F. A., Kelly, L. P., Hohl, R., & Kaushal, N. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13980 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Strategic Self-Talk Assists Basketball Free Throw Performance Under Conditions of Physical Exertion
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Charachousi, F., Latinjak, A. T., Comoutos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.892046 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Psychology of Athletic Endeavor
Beauchamp, M. R., Kingstone, A. F., & Ntoumanis, N. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-012722-045214 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Slimani, M., & Chéour, F. (2016) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-016-0267-z · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Latinjak, A. T., Masó, M., & Comoutos, N. (2017) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2017-0047 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Knowledge Map of Sport and Exercise Psychology: An Integrative Perspective
Latinjak, A. T., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661824 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationSpanish adaptation and validation of the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports
Latinjak, A. T., Viladrich, C., Alcaraz, S., & Torregrossa, M. (2015) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2015.1055287 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Moreover, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) pointed out that the effects of self-talk on motivation, attention and anxiety might serve as an underlying mechanism of the relationship between self-talk and performance.”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychological Skills Used by Sport Psychology Consultants to Improve Their Consulting
Filion, S., Munroe‐Chandler, K. J., & Loughead, T. M. (2019) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2019.1647475 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ζetou, E., Vernadakıs, N., & Bebetsos, E. (2014) · Journal of Physical Education and Sport · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Latinjak, A. T. (2016) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2016-0044 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Acquisition of the Long Jump Skill, Using Different Learning Techniques
Panteli, F., Tsolakis, C. K., Efthimiou, D., & Smirniotou, A. S. (2013) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.27.1.40 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Taking into consideration that the acquisition of a novel task, requiring coordination and accuracy, depends heavily on concentration (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2011), as well as that young, beginner athletes are characterized by limited attentional and retentional subprocesses (SteMarie, Clark, & Latimer, 2002), we des…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialValence, form, and content of self-talk predict sport type and level of performance
Nedergaard, J., Christensen, M. S., & Wallentin, M. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103102 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Raalte, J. L. V., Vincent, A., Dickens, Y. L., & Brewer, B. W. (2019) · Sport Exercise and Performance Psychology · doi:10.1037/spy0000172 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Thessaly (GR)
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
- Corresponding author
- Hatzigeorgiadis, Antonis
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-07
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 348-356
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2057172229
- Cited by
- 361
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 2.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Thessaly Institutional Repository (University of Thessaly) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Sports and Physical Education Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Keywords
- self-talk, athletic performance, instructional self-talk, motivational self-talk, motor skill learning, task novelty, moderators of intervention effectiveness
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