The DOI matches its Crossref record; 57 of the 57 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 38 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review
Open accessAbstract
Actual and perceived social isolation are both associated with increased risk for early mortality. In this meta-analytic review, our objective is to establish the overall and relative magnitude of social isolation and loneliness and to examine possible moderators. We conducted a literature search of studies (January 1980 to February 2014) using MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Social Work Abstracts, and Google Scholar. The included studies provided quantitative data on mortality as affected by loneliness, social isolation, or living alone. Across studies in which several possible confounds were statistically controlled for, the weighted average effect sizes were as follows: social isolation odds ratio (OR) = 1.29, loneliness OR = 1.26, and living alone OR = 1.32, corresponding to an average of 29%, 26%, and 32% increased likelihood of mortality, respectively. We found no differences between measures of objective and subjective social isolation. Results remain consistent across gender, length of follow-up, and world region, but initial health status has an influence on the findings. Results also differ across participant age, with social deficits being more predictive of death in samples with an average age younger than 65 years. Overall, the influence of both objective and subjective social isolation on risk for mortality is comparable with well-established risk factors for mortality.
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Claims the paper makes
40 Own result · 15 Own interpretation · 9 Own method · 8 No basis given · 6 Partly supported · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 2 Supported · 2 Supported so far · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 2 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Overall, the findings from this meta-analysis are consistent with prior evidence that has demonstrated higher survival rates for those who are more socially connected (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010)”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010 source
The Results (Omnibus Analysis) report a 50% increased likelihood of survival among people with stronger social relationships across 148 studies. The Discussion conclusion likewise reports greater survival among those with adequate, rather than poor or insufficient, social relationships. (LLM, conf=0.94)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“however, social isolation and loneliness are often not significantly correlated (Coyle & Dugan, 2012;Perissinotto & Covinsky, 2014) suggesting these may be independent constructs and one may occur without the other.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coyle & Dugan, 2012 source
- Could not verifycites Perissinotto & Covinsky, 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The main text distinguishes social isolation from loneliness and says that living alone does not reliably indicate loneliness. It does not report whether social isolation and loneliness are significantly correlated or how often they are not (searched for correlation and independence between the two). (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Being socially connected is not only influential for psychological and emotional well-being, but it also has a significant and positive influence on physical well-being (Uchino, 2006) and overall longevity (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010;House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988;Shor, Roelfs & Yogev, 2013).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010 source
The Results (Omnibus Analysis) report significantly greater odds of survival among people with stronger social relationships. The Discussion and Conclusion likewise describe social relationships as predictive of mortality, supporting the claim about overall longevity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shor, Roelfs & Yogev, 2013 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cumulative data from 70 independent prospective studies, with 3,407,134 participants followed for an average of 7 years, revealed a significant effect of social isolation, loneliness, and living alone on odds of mortality.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 3,407,134- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the number of covariates included in multivariate models was moderately associated with effect size (r = -.27).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Continuous Variables
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results remained consistent across gender, length of follow-up, and world region, but initial health status influenced the findings.”
- Also stated in: § Continuous Variables · plain
“We observed no coefficients greater than the absolute value of .20 between effect sizes and the year of initial data collection, the length of follow-up, or the percentage of female participants in each study.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Continuous Variables · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across studies that statistically controlled for a variety of possible confounds, the independent random effects weighted average effect sizes for social isolation OR = 1.29, loneliness OR = 1.26 and living alone OR = 1.32, corresponding to an average of 29%, 26%, and 32% increased likelihood of mortality respectively.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“After accounting for multiple covariates, the increased likelihood of death was 26% for reported loneliness, 29% for social isolation, and 32% for living alone.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 3,407,134- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across studies that statistically controlled for a variety of possible confounds, the independent random effects weighted average effect sizes for social isolation OR = 1.29, loneliness OR = 1.26 and living alone OR = 1.32, corresponding to an average of 29%, 26%, and 32% increased likelihood of mortality respectively.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“After accounting for multiple covariates, the increased likelihood of death was 26% for reported loneliness, 29% for social isolation, and 32% for living alone.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 3,407,134- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Actual and perceived social isolation are both associated with increased risk for early mortality.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The differences between unadjusted and fully adjusted data also reached statistical significance (p < .001)when comparing data within 27 studies that reported more than one statistical model (e.g., unadjusted compared with fully adjusted values) using multivariate meta-analytic methods after accounting for the .74correlation of effect sizes within studies.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 3 about here --
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 31
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Each is also associated with health relevant biological processes including higher blood pressure, C-reactive protein, lipid profiles, and poorer immune functioning (Grant, Hamer, & Steptoe, 2009;Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010;Pressman et al., 2005).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Grant, Hamer, & Steptoe, 2009 source
- Partly supportedcites Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Physical Health and Mortality and Physiological Functioning sections associate loneliness with higher blood pressure, cardiovascular risk factors including cholesterol, and impaired immune responses. They also discuss social isolation and inflammation, but do not establish that both loneliness and objective social isolation are associated with every listed measure. C-reactive protein appears only in a reference title, not as a reported association with either condition; the cholesterol passage likewise does not establish a generally adverse lipid profile. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pressman et al., 2005 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Among the few studies that contrasted social isolation and loneliness the evidence was mixed, with one study finding that loneliness was more influential (Holwerda et al., 2012) and another finding that social isolation (Steptoe, Shankar, Demakakos, & Wardle, 2013) has stronger effects than loneliness.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Objective Versus Subjective Isolation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Holwerda et al., 2012 source
- Supportedcites Steptoe, Shankar, Demakakos, & Wardle, 2013 source
The Discussion reports that social isolation remained strongly associated with mortality after adjustment for demographic factors and baseline health, whereas the association with loneliness was largely accounted for by baseline health. It also concludes that reducing isolation would likely have greater benefits for mortality. This supports the part of the citing sentence attributed to Steptoe et al.; it does not assess the separately cited study. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“however, social isolation and loneliness are often not significantly correlated (Coyle & Dugan, 2012;Perissinotto & Covinsky, 2014) suggesting these may be independent constructs and one may occur without the other.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coyle & Dugan, 2012 source
- Partly supportedcites Perissinotto & Covinsky, 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The main text (page not available in our copy) treats social isolation and loneliness as distinct concepts and says a measure combining them cannot show their individual effects. It also says living alone can occur without loneliness, but living alone is not the same as social isolation. The paper does not report that social isolation and loneliness are often not significantly correlated or directly establish that one occurs without the other. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The moderating effect of age may seem counterintuitive in light of data indicating that those over the age of 65 are more likely to report loneliness (Dykstra et al., 2005)”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Dykstra et al., 2005 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper’s Abstract (page not provided) reports that loneliness is more prevalent at advanced ages, particularly among people aged 80 and older. Its Conclusion (page not provided) says the increase is greatest among the oldest respondents and comparatively small among the “younger” old. It does not establish that people over 65 as a whole are more likely to report loneliness than those 65 or younger. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The average effect sizes identified in this meta-analysis were lower than those reported previously for measures of social networks (OR=1.45[95% CI= 1.32-1.59])and social integration (OR=1.52 [95% CI=1.36-1.69])and were much lower than complex measures of social integration (OR=1.91 [95% CI=1.63-2.23];see Table 4 of Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section (Moderation by Social Relationship Assessment; page unavailable) says that effect sizes varied by structural measure and that complex measures of social integration had larger effect sizes than social participation measures. It directs readers to Table 4 for the subtype odds ratios, but the passages available from our copy do not give the three quoted ORs and confidence intervals or establish the comparison with social networks and social integration specifically. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with poorer health behaviors including smoking, physical inactivity, and poorer sleep (Cacioppo et al., 2002;Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009;Theeke, 2010).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cacioppo et al., 2002 source
- Partly supportedcites Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that loneliness was associated with lower odds of physical activity, and the Conclusion discusses social isolation in relation to physical inactivity. The paper also reports an earlier study linking loneliness to smoking, but the passages do not link social isolation to smoking or either condition to poorer sleep. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Theeke, 2010 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The evolutionary perspective of loneliness proposed by Cacioppo and colleagues (2006;Cacioppo, Cacioppo, & Boomsma, 2014) presents loneliness as an adaptive signal, similar to hunger and thirst, that motivates one to alter behavior in a way that will increase survival.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Objective Versus Subjective Isolation
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Cacioppo, Cacioppo, & Boomsma, 2014 source
The Introduction explicitly describes loneliness as an aversive state that, like hunger and thirst, may have evolved to prompt behavior change that increases the likelihood of genetic survival. The ‘Possible Evolutionary Mechanisms for Loneliness’ section explains that this signal motivates people to repair or replace social connections. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“In light of mounting evidence that social isolation and loneliness are increasing in society (McPherson & Smith-Lovin, 2006;Perissinotto, Stijacic Cenzer, & Covinsky, 2012;Victor & Yang, 2012;Wilson & Moulton, 2010)”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McPherson & Smith-Lovin, 2006 source
- Could not verifycites Perissinotto, Stijacic Cenzer, & Covinsky, 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction says loneliness may be more prevalent among older people, and the Discussion reports loneliness among study participants. Neither establishes that loneliness or social isolation is increasing over time in society. Searches for prevalence trends and increases found no passage addressing that claim. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Victor & Yang, 2012 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“with the risk from social isolation and loneliness (controlling for multiple other factors) being equivalent to the risk associated with grades 2 and 3 obesity.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > References
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Flegal, Kit, Orpana, & Graubard, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Partly supportedcites Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The mortality risk estimates for lacking social connections and for obesity are comparable enough to be directly compared across meta-analyses.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies that controlled for health status variables yielded substantially different findings from those that did not.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Categorical Variables
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notably, the present meta-analysis included more than double the number of studies and ten times the number of participants compared to the previous meta-analysis.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To clarify, the inclusion of many covariates did not substantively reduce the magnitude of the general findings, which tended to remain in the range of OR = 1.20 to 1.40, but it did eliminate all OR values greater than 1.66.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Continuous Variables
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, the vast majority of studies examined only one measurement approach (social isolation, loneliness, or living alone), precluding direct comparisons.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Objective Versus Subjective Isolation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although we cannot confirm causality, the data show that individuals who were socially isolated, lonely, or living alone at study initiation were more likely to be deceased at the follow-up, regardless of participants' age or socioeconomic status, length of the follow-up, and type of covariates accounted for in the adjusted models.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 3,407,134- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies typically involved older adults, with a mean age of 66.0 years at initial data collection and with a mean length of follow-up being 7.1 years.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Description of the Retrieved Literature
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies involving participants of an average age less than 65 years had an average effect size of OR = 1.57for adjusted data and OR = 1.92 for unadjusted data;”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Continuous Variables
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However neither Egger's regression test nor an alternative to that test recommended for odds ratio data (Peters, Sutton, Jones, Abrams, & Rushton, 2006) reached statistical significance (p > .05),which findings diminished the likelihood of possible publication bias.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Likelihood of Publication Bias Adversely Influencing the Results
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Peters, Sutton, Jones, Abrams, & Rushton, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, each of the measures (social isolation, loneliness, and living alone) for each type of data (unadjusted, partially adjusted, or fully adjusted) had an odds ratio of between 1.26 and 1.83.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 2 about here -
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“studies involving participants of an average age between 65 and 75 years had an average effect size of OR = 1.25 for adjusted data and OR = 1.32 for unadjusted data;”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Continuous Variables
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Visual inspection of the corresponding scatterplot indicated that when studies included seven or more covariates, effect sizes tended to be more homogeneous, without extremely high values.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Continuous Variables
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Odds ratios ranged from 0.64 to 3.85, with exceptionally high heterogeneity across studies (I 2 = 97.8%[95% CI = 97.6% to 98.1%]; Q = 3328.9,p < 0.0001), suggesting excessive variability in findings across all types of data.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 2 about here -
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Averaged results with unadjusted data were of greater magnitude than the results from fully adjusted models (Table 3), particularly when participants had a pre-existing health condition and when physically ill participants were not excluded from the unadjusted analyses.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found the fail-safe N, the number of hypothetically missing studies needed to reduce the present results to zero to be 1,268, a number higher than the plausible number of studies conducted.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Likelihood of Publication Bias Adversely Influencing the Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies (63%) involved normal community samples, but 37% of studies involved patients with a medical condition, such as heart disease.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Description of the Retrieved Literature
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 24% of studies involved people with an average age of 59 or younger, and only 9% of studies involved people younger than age 50 at intake.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As seen in Figure 2, the data in this meta-analysis were highly variable, and the distribution of effect sizes appeared somewhat imbalanced toward the right side of the graph.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Likelihood of Publication Bias Adversely Influencing the Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we did not include marital status as an indicator of social isolation because being unmarried does not necessarily mean that one is socially isolated, living alone, or lonely.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When researchers reported multiple effect sizes within a study at the same point in time, we averaged the several values (weighted by standard error) to avoid violating the assumption of independent samples.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 1 about here --Data Abstraction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although many studies indicate that loneliness differs across marital status (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008;Hughes et al., 2004;Russell, 1982;Victor & Bowling, 2012;Waite & Gallagher, 2001)”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hughes et al., 2004 source
- Not matchedcites Russell, 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our meta-analysis cannot shed light on these four possible explanations because the first three explanations involve variables inadequately evaluated in the present research literature and the variable associated with the fourth explanation, marital status, was not coded in our analyses.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, the inter-rater agreement for data abstraction was adequately high for categorical variables (with Cohen's kappa averaging .73)and for continuous variables (with intraclass correlations for single measures averaging .95).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 1 about here --Data Abstraction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“and marital status is significantly associated with mortality (Roelfs, Shor, Kalish, & Yogev, 2011)”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Isolation and Aging
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roelfs, Shor, Kalish, & Yogev, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The latter two variables helped to address possible confounds (e.g., depression, health status, physical mobility, age) and reverse causality, whereby individuals with impaired health would be more likely to report increased social isolation or loneliness because of an inability to engage in social contact.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 1 about here --Data Abstraction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We resolved discrepancies across coding teams through further scrutiny of the manuscript until we obtained consensus.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 1 about here --Data Abstraction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To reduce the likelihood of human error in coding, each article was coded twice by a team of two raters.Two different raters performed the second coding of each article.Thus, two distinct coding teams (four raters) coded each article.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > --Insert Table 1 about here --Data Abstraction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This difference may suggest that the salubrious effects of being socially connected may be stronger than the adverse effects of lacking connections.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although we need further research on causal pathways, we now know both the level of risk and the social trends suggestive of even greater risk in the future.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > References
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The current status of research on the risks of loneliness and social isolation is similar to that of research on obesity three decades ago”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > References
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Affluent nations also have the highest rates of individuals living alone since census data collection began and likely the highest rates in human history, with those rates projected to increase (e.g., Euromonitor International, 2014).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > References
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Euromonitor International, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We caution scholars perusing the expanding research literature on the association of social isolation and loneliness with physical health against reliance on unadjusted data because those data fail to account for participant health status, a factor contributing to reverse causality”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is only through direct comparisons of social isolation and loneliness in the same sample that we can establish independent, relative, and synergistic effects.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Objective Versus Subjective Isolation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A recent report predicts that loneliness will reach epidemic proportions by 2030 unless action is taken (Linehan et al., 2014).”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > References
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Linehan et al., 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
The mortality risk estimates for lacking social connections and for obesity are comparable enough to be directly compared across meta-analyses.
“with the risk from social isolation and loneliness (controlling for multiple other factors) being equivalent to the risk associated with grades 2 and 3 obesity.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Together with e.g. smoking and alcohol consumption, it has been shown to be a hugely detrimental factor, imposing threats leading to poor mental health, quality of life (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015), declining cognitive function (Zhong et al., 2017) and increased mortality (Luo et al., 2012).”
From Filial Piety, Generativity and Older Adults’ Wellbeing and Loneliness in Denmark and China (2022) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Recent empirical evidence largely supports this view by documenting relationships linking social isolation, poor health, and low wellbeing (e.g., Larson, 1990; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2018).”
From Emotional processes, collective behavior, and social movements: A meta-analytic review of collective effervescence outcomes during collective gatherings and demonstrations (2022) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The effects of loneliness and social isolation associated with being young can contribute to psychological distress, increasing risk of premature mortality, and such risk rivals that associated with traditional risk factors including smoking, obesity, excessive alcohol consumption and lack of physical activity.4 5”
From Novel ACT-based eHealth psychoeducational intervention for students with mental distress: A study protocol for a mixed-methodology pilot trial (2019) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Although existing evidence indicates that loneliness and social isolation are independently associated with mental health conditions and mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015;Matthews et al., 2016), their independent effects on physical health conditions are less consistent and their independent effects on socioeconomic outcomes have not been investigated (Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017).”
From Investigating the interplay of loneliness and social isolation across adolescence: Findings from a nationally representative longitudinal study (2026) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Social isolation and loneliness have been studied extensively over the past four decades, with numerous studies showing that both have negative mental and physical health consequences [1–5].”
From Examining social isolation and loneliness in combination in relation to social support and psychological distress using Canadian Longitudinal Study of Aging (CLSA) data (2020) · cites this paper as [3]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“loneliness has detrimental effects on mental and physical health, evident in increased risk of psychological disorders, cognitive decline, and all‐cause mortality.[ 1 , 2 ]”
From Loneliness and the Social Brain: How Perceived Social Isolation Impairs Human Interactions (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Social connection is associated with reduced depression and anxiety, while loneliness is a major risk factor for poor mental health (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015).”
From Artificial intelligence and unconditional love: the rise of generative AI as an alternative form of mental health support (2026) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“First, research in psychology indicates that loneliness is a powerful emotional state that urges consumers to seek social connections (Hawkley and Cacioppo 2010; Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Loneliness is increasingly acknowledged as a serious public health issue.”
From Psychological correlates of perceived loneliness in college students before and during the COVID-19 stay-at-home period: a longitudinal study (2023) · cites this paper as [1]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Given the role played by perceived loneliness on health outcomes [1] and academic outcomes [94, 95], further longitudinal studies are needed to ascertain the medium to long term effects of loneliness, depression, and alexithymia.”
From Psychological correlates of perceived loneliness in college students before and during the COVID-19 stay-at-home period: a longitudinal study (2023) · cites this paper as [1]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those individuals are also more at risk for serious health conditions [42, 43].”
From Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland (2020) · cites this paper as [43]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For example, loneliness predicts earlier mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015), and is associated with less salutary profiles of cortisol and inflammatory responses to acute stress (Cacioppo et al., 2015; Eisenberger et al., 2017; Hawkley and Cacioppo, 2010).”
From More than a feeling: A unified view of stress measurement for population science (2018) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Social relationships buffer people from stress, improve their mental health [1,5,6], and provide meaningful roles that increase self-esteem and purpose in life [7,8].”
From A Randomized Pilot Study of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to Improve Social Support for Veterans with PTSD (2022) · cites this paper as [6]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Loneliness has also been shown to be associated with a wide range of physical and mental health outcomes, such as reduced cognitive function [23], depression [24–26], and mortality [3].”
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Social relationships buffer people from stress, improve their mental health [1,5,6], and provide meaningful roles that increase self-esteem and purpose in life [7,8].”
From A Randomized Pilot Study of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to Improve Social Support for Veterans with PTSD (2022) · cites this paper as [6]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Especially loneliness has been associated with an increased risk for several mental disorders and somatic diseases in general (Beutel et al., 2017; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Valtorta et al., 2018; Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016) and during the current pandemic (Palgi et al., 2020; González-Sanguino et al., 2020; Luchetti et al., 2020).”
From Lockdown, quarantine measures, and social distancing: Associations with depression, anxiety and distress at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among adults from Germany (2020) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“Loneliness and social isolation are as dangerous to health as smoking and obesity 23 ,”
From Mental health care for older adults: recent advances and new directions in clinical practice and research (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Adults who have few social contacts (ie, who are socially isolated) or feel unhappy about their social relationships (ie, who are lonely) are at increased risk of premature mortality.1”
In the citing paper
“Earlier reviews reported that cardiovascular disease (CVD) prognosis is worse among people with poorer social relationships.1 2”
In the citing paper
“To date, prospective studies investigating the relationship between loneliness and SIB are scarce”
From Loneliness as a predictor of suicidal ideation and behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies (2020) · cites this paper as Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015
In the citing paper
“For example, one meta-analysis of 70 prospective studies found that social isolation was associated with 29% and loneliness a 26% increased risk for premature mortality from all causes [23].”
From Social isolation: an underappreciated determinant of physical health (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Despite these relative differences, the aggregate effect sizes were not statistically different, suggesting both social isolation and loneliness may equivalently predict mortality risk.”
From Social isolation: an underappreciated determinant of physical health (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“We used a multi-item assessment of social isolation, which is referred to in previous studies as the best predictive validity for such a measurement strategy in relation to mortality.4”
From Contribution of risk factors to excess mortality in isolated and lonely individuals: an analysis of data from the UK Biobank cohort study (2017) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“identifying odds ratios of increased likelihood of mortality for social isolation (excluding suicide) of 1.29 (95 % CI 1.06, 1.56), for loneliness 1.26 (95 % CI 1.04, 1.53) and living alone 1.32 (95 % CI 1.14, 1.53) 19”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“The similar odds ratios for loneliness and social isolation 19 suggest no difference between subjective or objective measures of social isolation.”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“identifying odds ratios of increased likelihood of mortality for social isolation (excluding suicide) of 1.29 (95 % CI 1.06, 1.56), for loneliness 1.26 (95 % CI 1.04, 1.53) and living alone 1.32 (95 % CI 1.14, 1.53) 19”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have identified a significant association between social isolation and loneliness with increased all-cause mortality”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“identifying odds ratios of increased likelihood of mortality for social isolation (excluding suicide) of 1.29 (95 % CI 1.06, 1.56), for loneliness 1.26 (95 % CI 1.04, 1.53) and living alone 1.32 (95 % CI 1.14, 1.53) 19”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“| All-cause mortality (Holt Lunstad et al 2010*, Holt Lunstad et al 2015*, Nyqvist et al 2013*, Shor & Roelfs 2015) | ++ | ++ | ++ |”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as Holt Lunstad et al 2015*
In the citing paper
“| All-cause mortality (Holt Lunstad et al 2010*, Holt Lunstad et al 2015*, Nyqvist et al 2013*, Shor & Roelfs 2015) | ++ | ++ | ++ |”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as Holt Lunstad et al 2015*
In the citing paper
“| All-cause mortality (Holt Lunstad et al 2010*, Holt Lunstad et al 2015*, Nyqvist et al 2013*, Shor & Roelfs 2015) | ++ | ++ | ++ |”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as Holt Lunstad et al 2015*
In the citing paper
“while the other 19 found a stronger effect for individuals aged less than 65 years.”
From An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“By contrast, loneliness or the perceived absence of positive social relationships has been linked to diminished longevity [4]. particularly among older individuals in whom declining economic resources, illness, widowhood, and impaired mobility may result in increased risk for social isolation [5].”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Increasing evidence suggests that perceived social isolation or loneliness is a major risk factor for physical and mental illness in later life.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Of note, the data indicated no difference between objective and subjective measures of social isolation when predicting elevated risk for early mortality.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“a recent meta-analytic review of 70 independent prospective studies conducted between 1980 and 2014 – featuring a total of 3,407,134 participants – found that after accounting for multiple covariates (e.g., age, gender, socioeconomic status, health status, physical activity, smoking), the increased likelihood of premature mortality was 26% for reported loneliness, 29% for social isolation, and 32%”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Loneliness is associated with worse physical and mental health [5–8] and increases mortality risk [9,10].”
From Loneliness in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cross-sectional results from the COVID-19 Psychological Wellbeing Study (2020) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“two meta-analytic reviews have reported that loneliness and poor social support are associated with higher mortality rates, and that the effect is comparable with some well-established risk factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, and smoking [5, 6].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Creating and maintaining positive social relationships is essential for human physical and mental health and well-being (e.g. [1–4]).”
From The ice-breaker effect: Singing mediates fast social bonding (2015) · cites this paper as [2]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Categorical Variables
“Otherwise, the averaged effect sizes remained of similar magnitude irrespective of the particular covariates that were or were not included in the models (p > .20),including covariates relevant to depression, socioeconomic status, health status, physical activity, smoking, gender, and age.”
§ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review Meta-Analytic Review > Categorical Variables
“Studies that controlled for health status variables yielded substantially different findings from those that did not.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology
- Brigham Young University (US)
- ORCID
- Smith, Timothy B.
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 227-237
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2165243546
- Cited by
- 6,043
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 811 · 2025: 759 · 2024: 702 · 2023: 668 · 2022: 723 · 2021: 728 · 2020: 717 · 2019: 394 · 2018: 251 · 2017: 163 · 2016: 95 · 2015: 29
- FWCI
- 222.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Brigham Young University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Aging, Health, and Disability
- Keywords
- loneliness, social isolation, mortality risk, living alone, objective social isolation, health risk factors, age differences, effect size comparison
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Loneliness, Mortality, Risk Factors, Social Isolation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-07, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
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Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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