Lockdown, quarantine measures, and social distancing: Associations with depression, anxiety and distress at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among adults from Germany
Open accessAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is suggested to have a negative impact on mental health. To prevent the spread of Sars-CoV-2, governments worldwide have implemented different forms of public health measures ranging from physical distancing recommendations to stay-at-home orders, which have disrupted individuals’ everyday life tremendously. However, evidence on the associations of the COVID-19 pandemic and public health measures with mental health are limited so far. In this study, we investigated the role of sociodemographic and COVID-19 related factors for immediate mental health consequences in a nationwide community sample of adults from Germany (N = 4335). Specifically, we examined the effects of different forms and levels of restriction resulting from public health measures (e.g. quarantine, stay-at-home order) on anxiety and depression symptomatology, health anxiety, loneliness, the occurrence of fearful spells, psychosocial distress and life-satisfaction. We found that higher restrictions due to lockdown measures, a greater reduction of social contacts and greater perceived changes in life were associated with higher mental health impairments. Importantly, a subjectively assumed but not an officially announced stay-at-home order was associated with poorer mental health. Our findings underscore the importance of adequate risk communication and targeted mental health recommendations especially for vulnerable groups during these challenging times.
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- Findingown data
In the present sample, 13.1% reported a fearful spell in the past four weeks.
“In the present sample, 31.1% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential depression, 21.2% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential anxiety disorder diagnosis and 13.1% of the sample reported having had a fearful spell during the past 4 weeks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, being quarantined by a local health authority was not associated with any psychological outcome.
“However, being quarantined by a local health authority was not associated with any psychological outcome.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, a subjectively perceived stay-at-home order was unrelated to health anxiety.
“Perceived stay-at-home orders were unrelated to health anxiety.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Belonging to a risk group for severe COVID-19 was associated with negative mental health consequences of the public containment measures.
“Consistent with previous studies from countries around the world (see Luo et al., 2020; Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 for a review), we found that belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19, a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, being unemployed or non-working, a lower educational level and younger age were associated with negative mental health”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In the same sample, an officially announced stay-at-home order was not associated with any psychological outcome measure.
“There was no association of officially announced stay-at-home orders with psychological outcome measures (see Table 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
In the sample, 21.2% exceeded the cutoff for potential anxiety disorder diagnosis (GAD-7 ≥ 10).
“21.2% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential anxiety disorder diagnosis (GAD-7 ≥ 10)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, a more negative appraisal of perceived changes in life due to public health measures was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.
“A stronger reduction of social contacts, higher distress due to restrictions of social contacts, stronger perceived changes in life due to the public health measures and a more negative appraisal of these perceived changes were positively associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, fearful spells, psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, 55.2% reported being lonely (Loneliness ≥ 6).
“55.2% reported to be lonely (Loneliness ≥ 6)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Being unemployed or non-working was associated with negative mental health consequences of the public containment measures.
“Consistent with previous studies from countries around the world (see Luo et al., 2020; Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 for a review), we found that belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19, a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, being unemployed or non-working, a lower educational level and younger age were associated with negative mental health”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In the sample, 13.1% reported having experienced a fearful spell during the last 4 weeks.
“13.1% of the sample reported having experienced a fearful spell during the last 4 weeks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Having a lower educational level was associated with negative mental health consequences of the public containment measures.
“Consistent with previous studies from countries around the world (see Luo et al., 2020; Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 for a review), we found that belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19, a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, being unemployed or non-working, a lower educational level and younger age were associated with negative mental health”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In the sample, a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 in loved ones was not associated with any outcome measure.
“Having a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 was associated with higher loneliness, while a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 in loved ones was not associated with any outcome measure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, current or past psychiatric or psychotherapeutic treatment was a significant predictor in all multiple regression models of psychological outcomes.
“A current or past psychiatric or psychotherapeutic treatment, belonging to a COVID-19 risk group and perceived distress related to the restriction of social contacts were significant predictors in all models (see Table 2 for detailed information on all significant predictors for the respective outcome measure).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the present sample, 21.2% scored above the cutoff for a potential anxiety disorder diagnosis.
“In the present sample, 31.1% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential depression, 21.2% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential anxiety disorder diagnosis and 13.1% of the sample reported having had a fearful spell during the past 4 weeks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, belonging to a COVID-19 risk group was a significant predictor in all multiple regression models of psychological outcomes.
“A current or past psychiatric or psychotherapeutic treatment, belonging to a COVID-19 risk group and perceived distress related to the restriction of social contacts were significant predictors in all models (see Table 2 for detailed information on all significant predictors for the respective outcome measure).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, an officially announced stay-at-home order did not interact with a subjectively perceived stay-at-home order in predicting mental health outcomes.
“The moderation analysis revealed that an officially announced stay-at-home order did not interact with the perceived stay-at-home order in predicting mental health outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, 29.4% exceeded the cutoff for health anxiety (WI-7 ≥ 3).
“29.4% exceeded the cutoff score for health anxiety (WI-7 ≥ 3)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The overall multiple regression models explained between 12.2% and 64.1% of variance in psychological outcome measures.
“The overall models significantly explained between 12.2% and 64.1% of variance in psychological outcome measures (see Table 2), all p-values < 0.001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the present sample, 31.1% scored above the cutoff for potential depression.
“In the present sample, 31.1% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential depression, 21.2% exceeded the cutoff score for a potential anxiety disorder diagnosis and 13.1% of the sample reported having had a fearful spell during the past 4 weeks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, 26.5% reported moderate to severe psychosocial distress (PHQ stress module ≥ 10).
“while 26.5% reported moderate to severe psychosocial distress (PHQ stress module ≥ 10)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, negating a stay-at-home order despite the government having announced one was unrelated to mental health outcomes.
“Moreover, negating a stay-at-home order despite the fact that government has announced a stay-at-home order was unrelated to our mental health outcomes (β = −0.015 - 0.010, OR = 0.709, all ps > 0.05).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the same sample, perceived distress related to the restriction of social contacts was a significant predictor in all multiple regression models of psychological outcomes.
“A current or past psychiatric or psychotherapeutic treatment, belonging to a COVID-19 risk group and perceived distress related to the restriction of social contacts were significant predictors in all models (see Table 2 for detailed information on all significant predictors for the respective outcome measure).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, 41.4% reported mild psychosocial distress (PHQ stress module scores 5-9).
“41.4% of the sample reported mild psychosocial distress (PHQ stress module scores ranging between 5 and 9)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Having current or past mental health treatment was associated with negative mental health consequences of the public containment measures.
“Consistent with previous studies from countries around the world (see Luo et al., 2020; Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 for a review), we found that belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19, a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, being unemployed or non-working, a lower educational level and younger age were associated with negative mental health”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In the sample, 31.1% exceeded the cutoff for potential depression diagnosis (PHQ-9 ≥ 10).
“In the present study, 31.1% of the sample exceeded the cutoff score for a potential depression diagnosis (PHQ-9 ≥ 10)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the sample, having a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 was associated with higher loneliness.
“Having a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 was associated with higher loneliness, while a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 in loved ones was not associated with any outcome measure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Being younger was associated with negative mental health consequences of the public containment measures.
“Consistent with previous studies from countries around the world (see Luo et al., 2020; Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 for a review), we found that belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19, a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, being unemployed or non-working, a lower educational level and younger age were associated with negative mental health”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Vindegaard and Eriksen Benros, 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
People who were affected by a stay-at-home order but did not notice it showed no negative mental health consequences.
“Importantly, those persons who were affected by a stay-at-home order but took no notice of this order showed no negative mental health consequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was associated with greater loneliness.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In multiple regressions, distress related to contact restriction remained significantly related to all outcome measures.
“In multiple regressions, common factors that remained significantly related to all outcome measures included a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, distress related to contact restriction and belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A perceived stay-at-home order was associated with poorer mental health outcomes.
“In contrast to the officially announced stay-at-home order, a perceived stay-at-home order was associated with poorer mental health outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to more fearful spells.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingcitation
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to lower life-satisfaction.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was associated with lower life-satisfaction.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was not related to depressive symptoms.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was not related to fearful spells.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to greater psychosocial distress.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In multiple regressions, belonging to a severe COVID-19 risk group remained significantly related to all outcome measures.
“In multiple regressions, common factors that remained significantly related to all outcome measures included a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, distress related to contact restriction and belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Six percent of the sample denied that there was an officially imposed prohibition to leave the apartment in their federal state, although a stay-at-home order existed.
“Although there was a stay-at-home order, 6% of the sample negated that there was an officially imposed prohibition to leave the apartment in their federal state.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
An officially announced stay-at-home order was not related to mental health outcomes.
“Moreover, an officially announced stay-at-home order was not related to mental health outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe anxiety symptoms.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive symptoms.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
In multiple regressions, current or past mental health treatment remained significantly related to all outcome measures.
“In multiple regressions, common factors that remained significantly related to all outcome measures included a current or past treatment due to mental health problems, distress related to contact restriction and belonging to a risk group for a severe course of COVID-19.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A perceived stay-at-home order was related to greater reported loneliness.
“The present findings extend preliminary results from a small cross-sectional study in the US (Tull et al., 2020) in demonstrating that a perceived stay-at-home order was related to more severe depressive and anxiety symptomatology, greater reported loneliness, more fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction irrespective of whether a stay-at-home order was officially”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was associated with greater psychosocial distress.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In this study, there was little evidence that public health measures per se were associated with immediate mental health impairments.
“Moreover, in our study, there was little evidence that public health measures per se were associated with immediate mental health impairments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A higher level of lockdown restrictions was not related to anxiety symptoms.
“In the present study, we found that a higher level of restrictions due to lockdown measures was associated with more loneliness, higher psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction but was not related to anxiety and depressive symptomatology or fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The prevalence estimates in this sample are comparable to those reported in other countries during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“These data are comparable to the prevalence reported in studies conducted in other countries during the COVID-19 pandemic (Luo et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Luo et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
In the same sample, participants who believed that the government had announced a stay-at-home order reported higher scores on psychological outcome measures regardless of whether the government had officially announced such an order in their federal state.
“That is, participants who believed that government had announced a stay-at-home order reported higher scores on psychological outcome measures whether or not government has officially announced stay-at-home orders in their federal state (officially announced x subjectively perceived stay-at-home order interaction, βs = −0.028 - 0.041, OR = 1.494, all ps > 0.05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Receiving information from health professionals or other experts was not associated with negative mental health consequences.
“In contrast, receiving information from health professionals or other experts was not associated with negative mental health consequences (Ko et al., 2020; Chao et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ko et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Chao et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Public health measures might have unfavorable long-term effects on mental health.
“Nonetheless, such measures might have unfavorable long-term effects on mental health.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Unfavorable feelings may not relate to immediate mental health impairments but may increase the future risk of developing psychopathological symptoms and mental disorders.
- Interpretationreasoning
Misinformation about official stay-at-home orders might negatively affect mental health.
“The present finding indicates that misinformation about official stay-at-home orders might have a negative impact on mental health.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Recent studies found that loneliness strongly predicted depressive and anxiety symptoms during COVID-19 lockdowns.
“For example, recent studies found that loneliness strongly predicted depressive and anxiety symptoms during COVID-19-related lockdown measures (Palgi et al., 2020; González-Sanguino et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- May combine two claims. 14
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the sample, having contact to loved ones in an officially announced COVID-19 risk group was associated with higher health anxiety and lower loneliness.
“Having contact to loved ones that belong to an officially announced COVID-19 risk group was associated with higher health anxiety and lower loneliness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThe mean life-satisfaction score in the sample was 6.42 (SD = 2.31).
“The mean score of life-satisfaction was 6.42 (SD = 2.31).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the same sample, a greater reduction of social contacts was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.
“A stronger reduction of social contacts, higher distress due to restrictions of social contacts, stronger perceived changes in life due to the public health measures and a more negative appraisal of these perceived changes were positively associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, fearful spells, psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the sample, belonging to an officially announced COVID-19 risk group was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, health anxiety, fearful spells, higher psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.
“Belonging to an officially announced COVID-19 risk group was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, health anxiety, fearful spells, higher psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn the same sample, greater distress due to restrictions of social contacts was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, psychosocial distress, lower life-satisfaction, and higher health anxiety.
“A stronger reduction of social contacts, higher distress due to restrictions of social contacts, stronger perceived changes in life due to the public health measures and a more negative appraisal of these perceived changes were positively associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, fearful spells, psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction.”
- Also stated in: § COVID-19-related variables · plain
“There was no association (expect for social distancing related distress) of theses predictors with health anxiety.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § COVID-19-related variables · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn a nationwide German community sample of 4335 adults, a higher level of restriction due to public health measures was associated with greater loneliness, greater psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.
“A higher level of restriction due to public health measures was associated with higher loneliness, higher psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the same sample, stronger perceived changes in life due to public health measures were associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, psychosocial distress, and lower life-satisfaction.
“A stronger reduction of social contacts, higher distress due to restrictions of social contacts, stronger perceived changes in life due to the public health measures and a more negative appraisal of these perceived changes were positively associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptomatology, fearful spells, psychosocial distress and lower life-satisfaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the sample, being in self-quarantine was associated with higher health anxiety and with fearful spells.
“Being in self-quarantine was associated with higher health anxiety and with fearful spells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the same sample, a subjectively perceived stay-at-home order was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, greater psychosocial distress, greater loneliness, and lower life-satisfaction.
“However, perceived stay-at-home orders were associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms, fearful spells, higher psychosocial distress, higher loneliness, and lower life-satisfaction (see Table 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the same sample, reduction of social contacts, perceived changes in life, and negative appraisal of those changes were not associated with health anxiety, whereas distress due to restrictions of social contacts was associated with health anxiety.
“There was no association (expect for social distancing related distress) of theses predictors with health anxiety.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAbout one in four respondents reported living in a German federal state where the government had imposed a stay-at-home order, while objective data indicated that the government had not announced such an order.
“However, about one in four respondents reported to live in a German federal state in which government has imposed a prohibition to leave the apartment without sound reasons (stay-at-home order), while objective data indicated that the respective government had not announced such stay-home-order.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningConvenience sampling led to underrepresentation of older respondents and men, which limits generalization of the results to the general population of Germany and other countries.
“However, as a result of our recruitment method (i.e., convenience sampling methods) older respondents and men were relatively underrepresented in the current sample which limits the generalization of the present results to the general population of Germany and other countries.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationRecent studies found that insufficient information or misinformation about COVID-19 was associated with poorer mental health and well-being.
“For example, recent studies found that insufficient information (González-Sanguino et al., 2020) or misinformation (‘fake news’) on COVID-19 (Wang et al., 2020) was associated with poorer mental health and well-being (Ko et al., 2020; Chao et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationLockdown measures have been associated with increased psychological distress and loneliness.
“For example, lockdown measures have been associated with increased psychological distress and loneliness (Tull et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationExternalizing symptoms might also be affected by public health measures and restrictions.
“Moreover, we only assessed internalizing symptoms like depressive or anxiety symptoms, while externalizing symptoms (e.g., anger, aggression, alcohol abuse) might also be affected by public health measures and restrictions (Brooks et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brooks et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe study relied exclusively on self-report data, which might have been subject to memory and recall biases.
“Our study exclusively relied on self-report data which might have been subject to memory and recall-biases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationGreater loneliness and higher psychosocial distress might facilitate or moderate potential negative mental health consequences.
“Although the level of restriction due to lockdown measures was not associated with an immediate increase in psychopathological symptoms, more loneliness and higher psychosocial distress might be relevant factors that facilitate or moderate potential negative consequences for mental health.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Unfavorable feelings may not relate to immediate mental health impairments but may increase the future risk of developing psychopathological symptoms and mental disorders.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationLoneliness has been linked to increased risk for several mental disorders and somatic diseases in general.
“Especially loneliness has been associated with an increased risk for several mental disorders and somatic diseases in general (Beutel et al., 2017; Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015; Valtorta et al., 2018; Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016) and during the current pandemic (Palgi et al., 2020; González-Sanguino et al., 2020; Luchetti et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe current findings suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic causes negative mental health consequences, especially in vulnerable groups.
“The current findings suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic causes negative consequences for mental health especially in vulnerable groups (e.g. young adults, individuals with a mental disorder) which may need special attention and support by implementing interventions or prevention programs to mitigate long-term consequences for mental health (Holmes et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Holmes et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
The cross-sectional associations observed during the study period reflect the immediate mental health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and public health measures, rather than pre-existing or unrelated differences.
“The present study was aimed at identifying potential predictors for immediate mental health consequences to the COVID-19 pandemic and related public health measures in Germany.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants' self-reported zip codes accurately identify their federal state and thus the public health measures in place.
“Analyses including data provided by the ZPID (Restrictions by public health measures and officially announced stay-at-home orders) were limited to those participants who reported their zip codes (n = 4185).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Unfavorable feelings may not relate to immediate mental health impairments but may increase the future risk of developing psychopathological symptoms and mental disorders.
“In line with vulnerability-stress models, it is plausible to assume that such unfavorable feelings not necessarily relate to immediate mental health impairments, but may increase the risk to develop psychopathological symptoms and mental disorders in the future.”
Claims other papers make about this one
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The coronavirus (COVID-19) first appeared in China at the end of 2019 and evolved into a global crisis with a significant negative impact on the physical and mental health of individuals across the globe.
“The coronavirus (COVID-19) first appeared in China at the end of 2019 and evolved into a global crisis with a significant negative impact on the physical and mental health of individuals across the globe (Benke et al., 2020; Huang and Zhao, 2020).”
From Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Increases Mental Wellbeing and Emotion Regulation During the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Synchronous Online Intervention Study (2021) · cites this paper as Benke et al., 2020
The Introduction describes COVID-19 as a global crisis affecting physical and mental health worldwide. It does not state that the coronavirus first appeared in China at the end of 2019, so that part of the citing sentence is not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBehavioral activation may be especially crucial during pandemic times because engagement with typical mood-boosting reinforcers dwindles to preserve social distancing and cope with quarantining.
“Further, we argue that behavioral activation may be especially crucial during pandemic times, as engagement with typical mood-boosting reinforcers (e.g., social interaction) dwindles to preserve social distancing and cope with quarantining (Benke et al., 2020;Jin et al., 2021).”
From RESILIENCE, COPING, AND THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ACROSS THE GLOBE – AN UPDATE: WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED? (2023) · cites this paper as Benke et al., 2020
There is substantial evidence to demonstrate the deterioration of mental health among people during and after the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the pre-COVID-19 period.
“There is substantial evidence to demonstrate the deterioration of mental health among people during and after the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the pre-COVID-19 period [13–16].”
From Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicidal attempts and death rates: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [14]
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- Authors
- Benke, C., Autenrieth, L. K., Asselmann, E., & Pané-Farré, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Philipps University of Marburg (DE)
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Benke, Christoph
- Venue
- Psychiatry Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-11
- Volume
- 293
- Pages
- 113462
- ISSN
- 0165-1781 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7500345
- OpenAlex
- W3087101165
- Semantic Scholar
- 4ea8c68bcb73a760289e814c9161962d5f605108
- Cited by
- 585
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 181 · 2021: 148 · 2020: 3
- FWCI
- 46.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychiatry Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown measures, quarantine, stay-at-home orders, social distancing, depression, anxiety, psychosocial distress, loneliness, health anxiety, life satisfaction, risk communication, mental health outcomes, adults
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Germany, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Quarantine, Psychological Distance, Stress, Psychological, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-04.
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