Comparing theories of consciousness: why it matters and how to do it
Open accessAbstract
The theoretical landscape of scientific studies of consciousness has flourished. Today, even multiple versions of the same theory are sometimes available. To advance the field, these theories should be directly compared to determine which are better at predicting and explaining empirical data. Systematic inquiries of this sort are seen in many subfields in cognitive psychology and neuroscience, e.g. in working memory. Nonetheless, when we surveyed publications on consciousness research, we found that most focused on a single theory. When 'comparisons' happened, they were often verbal and non-systematic. This fact in itself could be a contributing reason for the lack of convergence between theories in consciousness research. In this paper, we focus on how to compare theories of consciousness to ensure that the comparisons are meaningful, e.g. whether their predictions are parallel or contrasting. We evaluate how theories are typically compared in consciousness research and related subdisciplines in cognitive psychology and neuroscience, and we provide an example of our approach. We then examine the different reasons why direct comparisons between theories are rarely seen. One possible explanation is the unique nature of the consciousness phenomenon. We conclude that the field should embrace this uniqueness, and we set out the features that a theory of consciousness should account for.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
There are now so many theories of consciousness that an increasing number of researchers are turning their attention to the meta-theoretical question of how they might be compared and evaluated.
“Indeed, there are now so many theories of consciousness that an increasing number of researchers are turning their attention to the meta-theoretical question of how they might be compared and evaluated (Chis-Ciure et al., 2024; Del Pin et al., 2021; Doerig et al., 2021; Kirkeby-Hinrup, 2024; Negro et al., 2024; Signorelli et al., 2021), with a view to advancing the field via the unification, integ”
From Integrated information and predictive processing theories of consciousness: An adversarial collaborative review (2026) · cites this paper as Del Pin et al., 2021
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes
Lakatos, I. (1976) · Can Theories be Refuted? · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1863-0_14 · Cited by 3,915 · see citing works
Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-4860 · Cited by 3,438 · see citing works
Platt, J. R. (1964) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.146.3642.347 · Cited by 2,907 · see citing works
Experimental and theoretical approaches to conscious processing
Dehaene, S., & Changeux, J.-P. (2011) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.018 · Cited by 2,573 · see citing works
The distinct modes of vision offered by feedforward and recurrent processing
Lamme, V. A. F., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2000) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01657-x · Cited by 2,338 · see citing works
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Wahlberg, L. (2017) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · Cited by 1,854 · see citing works
Consciousness as integrated information: a provisional manifesto
Tononi, G. (2008) · The Biological Bulletin · doi:10.2307/25470707 · Cited by 1,529 · see citing works
From the phenomenology to the mechanisms of consciousness: integrated information theory 3.0
Oizumi, M., Albantakis, L., & Tononi, G. (2014) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003588 · Cited by 1,128 · see citing works
Rosenthal, D. M. (2005) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198236979.001.0001 · Cited by 993 · see citing works
Perceptual consciousness overflows cognitive access
Block, N. J. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.001 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
Understanding the Higher-Order Approach to Consciousness
Brown, R., Lau, H., & LeDoux, J. E. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.06.009 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Boly, M., Massimini, M., Tsuchiya, N., Postle, B. R., Koch, C., & Tononi, G. (2017) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3218-16.2017 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
How conscious experience and working memory interact
Baars, B. J., & Franklin, S. (2003) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00056-1 · Cited by 541 · see citing works
Self-Evaluation of Decision-Making: A General Bayesian Framework for Metacognitive Computation
Fleming, S. M., & Daw, N. D. (2017) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000045 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
How rich is consciousness? The partial awareness hypothesis
Kouider, S., de Gardelle, V., Sackur, J., & Emmanuel Dupoux, A. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.04.006 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Benchmarks for models of short-term and working memory.
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Awh, E., Brown, G. D. A., Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Donkin, C., Farrell, S., Hitch, G. J., Hurlstone, M. J., et al. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000153 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Studies for Students: The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses
Chamberlin, T. C. (1897) · The Journal of Geology · doi:10.1086/607980 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Should a Few Null Findings Falsify Prefrontal Theories of Conscious Perception?
Odegaard, B., Knight, R. T., & Lau, H. (2017) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3217-16.2017 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Harding, S. (1976) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1863-0 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Northoff, G., & Lamme, V. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.019 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Dehaene, S., Changeux, J.-P., & Naccache, L. (2011) · Research and Perspectives in Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-18015-6_4 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Brain Mechanisms Underlying the Brief Maintenance of Seen and Unseen Sensory Information
King, J.-R., Pescetelli, N., & Dehaene, S. (2016) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.051 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Hard criteria for empirical theories of consciousness
Doerig, A., Schurger, A., & Herzog, M. H. (2021) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2020.1772214 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
The signal processing architecture underlying subjective reports of sensory awareness
Maniscalco, B., & Lau, H. (2016) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niw002 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Perceptual illusions in brief visual presentations
de Gardelle, V., Sackur, J., & Kouider, S. (2009) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2009.03.002 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
How do scientific views change? Notes from an extended adversarial collaboration
Cowan, N., Belletier, C., Doherty, J. M., Jaroslawska, A. J., Rhodes, S., Forsberg, A., Naveh-Benjamin, M., Barrouillet, P., Camos, V., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620906415 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Characterizing Consciousness: From Cognition to the Clinic?
Dehaene, S., & Christen, Y. (2011) · Research and perspectives in neurosciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-18015-6 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Consensus Goals in the Field of Visual Metacognition
Rahnev, D., Balsdon, T., Charles, L., de Gardelle, V., Denison, R., Desender, K., Faivre, N., Filevich, E., Fleming, S. M., Jehee, J., et al. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221075615 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
An Informal Internet Survey on the Current State of Consciousness Science
Michel, M., Fleming, S. M., Lau, H. C., Lee, A., Martínez‐Conde, S., Passingham, R. E., Peters, M. A. K., Rahnev, D., Sergent, C., & Liu, K. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02134 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
THE WEAKNESSES OF STRONG INFERENCE
O’Donohue, W., & Buchanan, J. A. (2001) · Behavior and philosophy · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Irvine, E. (2017) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-014-9273-4 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Rival theories face off over brain’s source of consciousness
Reardon, S. (2019) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.366.6463.293 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
What's wrong with single hypotheses?: Why it is time for Strong-Inference-PLUS.
Jewett, D. L. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Defense of the Scientific Hypothesis
Alger, B. E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190881481.001.0001 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Consensus goals in the field of visual metacognitionPreprint
Rahnev, D., Balsdon, T., Charles, L., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/z8v5x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Working memory benchmarks—A missed opportunity: Comment on Oberauer et al. (2018).
Vandierendonck, A. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000159 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Scientific advance and theory integration in working memory: Comment on Oberauer et al. (2018).
Logie, R. H. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000162 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Fahrenfort, J. J., & van Gaal, S. (2020) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2020.1838470 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Defense of the Scientific Hypothesis: From Reproducibility Crisis to Big Data
Alger, B. E. (2019) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Pin, S. H. D., Skóra, Z., Sandberg, K., Overgaard, M. S., & Wierzchoń, M. (2020) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2020.102990 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationThe hard problem makes the easy problems hard - a reply to Doerig et al.
Pinto, Y., & Stein, T. (2020) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2020.1838469 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hard but so valuable to define hard criteria for empirical theories of consciousness
Naccache, L. (2020) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2020.1839038 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Accelerating scientific progress through Bayesian adversarial collaboration
Corcoran, A. W., Hohwy, J., & Friston, K. J. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.08.027 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A measure centrality index for systematic empirical comparison of consciousness theories
Chis-Ciure, R., Melloni, L., & Northoff, G. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105670 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Negro, N. (2024) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niae012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Corcoran, A. W., Haun, A. M., Dorman, R., Tononi, G., Friston, K. J., & Pennartz, C. M. A. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106742 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Del Pin, S. H., Skóra, Z., Sandberg, K., Overgaard, M., & Wierzchoń, M.
- Affiliations
- Consciousness Lab, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Ingardena 6, Krakow 30-060, Poland
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Aarhus University (DK)
- Venue
- Neuroscience of Consciousness
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2021-01-01
- Volume
- 2021
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- niab019-niab019
- ISSN
- 2057-2107 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8372971
- OpenAlex
- W3196247685
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 10.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Neuroscience of Consciousness (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Scopus (Elsevier) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Narodowym Centrum Nauki (2017/25/N/HS6/01094)
- European Cooperation in Science and Technology
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Keywords
- theory of consciousness, theory comparison, scientific theories, predictive power, explanatory power, convergence of theories, consciousness studies, theory evaluation, nature of consciousness
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
