Emotional Behaviors, Emotivational Goals, Emotion Strategies: Multiple Levels of Organization Integrate Variable and Consistent Responses

“The classicalview of emotionincludes basicemotion theories (e.g. fora review,seeTracy and Randles, 2011), causal appraisal theories (e.g. Scherer, 2009; Roseman, 2011), and theories of emotion that rely on black-box functionalism (Davis, 1992; Anderson and Adolphs, 2014).”

“The classical view of emotion includes basic emotion theories (e.g. for a review, see Tracy and Randles, 2011), causal appraisal theories (e.g. Scherer, 2009; Roseman, 2011), and theories of emotion that rely on black-box functionalism (Davis, 1992; Anderson and Adolphs, 2014).”

“The Classical View of Emotion: The Fingerprint Hypothesis The classical view of emotion includes a variety of ideas about the existence of basic emotion and causal appraisal processes (e.g., Anderson & Adolphs, 2014; Ekman, 1984; Ekman, 2007; Ekman & Cordaro, 2011; Ekman & Davidson, 1994; Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1…”

“By hypothesizing that the appraisal is an intervening mechanism between the stimulus and emotion, causal appraisal models made it easier to accommodate evidence of variability in physiological, facial, and behavioral patterns into the natural kinds framework: such variability could occur because different people appra…”

“If the system itself produces “beyond-chance probabilistic” output (Roseman, 2011 p. 440), then so will attempts to computationally model it.”

“The pattern for each emotion category is thought to either be obligatory (e.g., Ekman, 1992) or to occur probabilistically (e.g., Roseman, 2011).”

“The responses in each emotion syndrome, rather than being a random collection, seem interrelated and integrated into a distinctive (evolution-shaped and typically unconscious) strategy for coping with a particular type of situation (Roseman, 2011).”

“This is a high bar to reach, of course, but it is the one that is set by the theoretical writings about discrete emotion models (e.g., Ekman, 1999; Izard, 2011; Kreibig, 2010; Levenson, 2011; Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 2011; Öhman & Mineka, 2001; Roseman, 2011).”

“Distinct emotions are constructs that generally involve consistent and specific patterns of subjective feelings, physiological changes, neural activity, cognitive appraisals, and motivated action tendencies (Ekman, 1992; Kragel & LaBar, 2014; Roseman, 2011; see Tracy & Randles, 2011).”

“…of emotional expression and experience requires an appreciation of a wide degree of variability in display behavior, subjective experience, patterns of appraisal, and physiological response, both within and across emotion categories (Banse & Scherer, 1996; Roseman, 2011; Russell, 1991).”

“These appraisals are about the meaning of an external stimulus, not about a person’s core affective state, and like the emotions they generate, appraisals are believed to also be encapsulated mechanisms that, in combination, are uniquely tied to different emotions (Ellsworth, 2013; Moors, 2009; Roseman, 2011).”

“This result that is consistent with evidence that emotion feelings do not always translate to emotion-related behaviors (Roseman, 2011; Roseman et al., 1994), and that these gaps can reflect that some individuals respond to “misfiring” by adaptively engaging in emotion regulation (Gross, 1998b; Gross & John, 2003).”

“Recent accounts claiming links between emotional states and nonverbal signals have emphasised the probabilistic nature of these associations (see Levenson, 2011; Roseman, 2011).”

“These unique action tendencies are a crucial link between emotions and subsequent behavior (Roseman, 2011).”

“At a more practical level, Roseman (2011) outlined a number of reasons why variability should be expected in studies that assess emotional responding, both across people and across instances of the same emotion within people.”

“The only assumption is that the link is “beyond-chance probabilistic” (Roseman, 2011, p. 440), reflecting a “ground truth” between machine-readable signals and affect estimates from self/ observer/elicitation.”

“Part of the problem with this all-or-none assumption is that people often feel multiple states at once (Roseman, 2011).”

“…mechanisms that cause the subjective evaluations that, in turn, either cause or constitute instances of emotion (Arnold, 1960a, 1960b; Frijda, 1986; Lazarus, 1966; Roseman, 2011; Sander, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2005; Scherer, 2005; see chapter: Theoretical Approaches to Emotion and Its Measurement).”

“Appraisal theorists have put forward concrete predictions about how appraisals can generate emotional episodes that are patterned across multiple components, including motivation [11], [12], [13], [14], [15],”

“, 1993; Roseman & Smith, 2001; Scherer, 1984, 2001), and with those that highlight the features of synchronicity among the appraisal components (Scherer, 2009) and componential coherence (Roseman, 2011).”

“We focus on distinct emotions, typically defined as momentary processes that often—though not always—include subjective feelings, physiological changes, cognitive appraisals, and motivated action tendencies or behaviors (see Roseman, 2011; Tracy & Randles, 2011).”

“…as display rules or cultural dialects (e.g., Cordaro et al., 2018; Elfenbein, 2013; Levenson, 2011; Matsumoto, 1990), stochastic error (as suggested by Roseman, 2011), or methodological concerns (e.g., perhaps the stimulus situation was too weak to evoke prototypic emotions; see Levenson, 2011).”

“Sadness is an avoidance emotion or so-called distancing emotion that tends to stop movement toward a stimulus and thus increases distance from the stimulus (Ortony & Turner, 1990; Roseman, 2011).”

“In the self conditions, both the fight/flight and beg/stubborn conditions supported the idea that feelings of anger vs. fear relate to the goals to dominate/aggress vs. be submissive (e.g., Fridlund, 1994; Roseman, 2011).”

“This is in line with the traditional definition of an emotion which is made up of affective, cognitive, behavioral, physiological, expres‑ sive, and motivational components (Roseman, 2011; Scherer, 1984, 2009).”

“…a poor grade as expected on an exam that violates the aspiration to receive good grades), and (4) the violation of a social norm (e.g., a friendwearing pajamas and a bathrobe in class). efficacy, available coping strategies, etc. (e.g. Bandura, 1997; Lazarus, 1993; Roseman, 2011; Scherer, 2001).”

“Emotions are multicomponential including appraisals, urges to act, motivations, and physiological changes in service of the state (e.g., Roseman, 2011).”

“In this view, an emotion, once triggered—either by dedicated neural circuitry (Cannon, 1921, 1927; Ekman & Cordaro, 2011; Panksepp, 1998; Vytal & Hamman, 2010) or a cognitive system (Arnold, 1960; Lazarus, 1966; Roseman, 2011), pro-”

“Some randomness is expected, and other processes, independent of an emotion itself, are thought to interfere with the fingerprint, such as “display rules” or other regulatory strategies, such as suppression (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011; Gross, 2015; Matsumoto, Keltner, Shiota, Frank, & O’Sullivan, 2008; Roseman, 2011; Tracy…”

“When attributed to a learning object, core affect begins an emotional episode (Russell, 2003; Shuman & Scherer, 2014) that comprises multiple components (e.g., phenomenological, expressive, and motivational components; Roseman, 2011; Shuman & Scherer, 2014).”

“Such a view would be consistent with a number of theories of distinct emotions (e.g., Frijda, 1986; Frijda & Parrott, 2011; Roseman, 2011; see also Harris, 2003, for similar analysis of jealousy).”

“It characterizes the person’s relationship to their environ - ment at a particular moment in time (Roseman, 2011 ).”

“We assumed that these would reflect the type of negative and positive emotions typically associated with goal-conduciveness and goal-obstruction while pursuing a goal under time pressure in this way [32, 35].”

“57 Roseman (2011) provides a hierarchical motive-based model pertaining to emotional “ effects ” that may serve to also motivate (e-motion) action.”

“For instance, being in love is most strongly related to wanting to connect, support, and be close to one’s lover (Roseman, 2011).”

“This is to say, then, that there may be a subset of emotion elicitors that is, for evolutionary reasons, privileged, but the set of potential elicitors can subsequently be enlarged by association, learning, deliberation, and more generally, concept acquisition (Prinz, 2004; Roseman, 2011).”

“Many scholars argue that sadness is an emotion of withdrawal and avoidance (Roseman, 2011).”

“In general, emotion literature suggests that when an individual experiences anger, he or she is motivated to avoid or move against the source that made them angry (Roseman, 2011; Roseman, Wiest, & Swartz, 1994).”

“Our results support Roseman’s (2011) contention that people are likely to experience multiple emotions in response to the same event.”

“In the interest of maximizing adaptability to new situations and environments, the mappings have evolved to be loose and variable, not fixed and rigid [Coan 2010; Roseman 2011; Tracy 2014].”

“Moreover, the term basic seems to underlie that the emotions are discrete, rather than a family of related states (Scherer and Ellgring, 2007; Tracy and Matsumoto, 2008; Roseman, 2011; Bänziger et al., 2012; Keltner and Cordaro, 2017; Cordaro et al., 2018).”

“Hope is associated with approach tendency and perseverance, which promote the desire to reach success (Roseman, 2011; Roseman et al., 1994).”

“These action tendencies then act as behavioral motivations for individuals to take a certain action (Roseman, 2011).”

“Variability in the phenomenology, expression, and behavior of an emotion across instances is to be expected (Roseman, 2011), and some of it can be explained, as Fischer et al. (2018) suggest, by emotivational goals guiding response selection in light of varying situational conditions.”

“The evaluation of the personal relevance of the environment is key to appraisal theories (Arnold, 1960; Lazarus, 1991; Roseman, 2011; Sander et al., 2005) and to psychological construction theory (Barrett and Russell, 2015), which place the extraction of meaning as central to the eventual emotional…”

“Roseman (2011), in response to the variability between emotions and behavioral outcomes, argues that emotions are consistent at the level of coping strategies.”

“Building on this work, it is proposed that, in addition to the influence of motive strength, emotion intensity is a function of the amount of actual or potential change perceived in motiverelevant events (Roseman, 2008), and also the rate of change (Roseman, 2011), with more important, larger, and faster changes produ…”

“non-pregnant populations (Roseman, 2011; Smith & Lazarus, 1993).”

“, [31, 35]) are associated with the motivation to move away or withdraw from the stimulus causing the emotion.”

“Roseman (2011) finds that several authors speak of “emotivational goals” to highlight this motivational component of many emotions.”

“A sense of control or agency is an important dimension on which emotion and motivation tend to dissociate (Roseman, 2008, 2011; see also Chiew& Braver, 2011).”

“…OCC emotion categories to a dimensional space (e.g., PPAD-Algo (43)), defining their own functions or values from OCC variables with no clear empirical basis (e.g., CMEs 4, 8, 9, 18, 32, 42, 45, 47, 50, 51, 61, 64, 66, 67), or not concerning themselves with intensity at all (e.g., CMEs 1, 27, 39).”

“…danger ” in the case of fear; “ cleansing oneself ” in the case of disgust; “ reaching proximity to the caregiver ” in the case of attachment anxiety) is consistent with motivational theories of emotions, which speak of relational goals (Scarantino, 2014) and emotivational goals (Roseman, 2011).”

“…preventative action is through eliciting the experience of specific emotions, as prior research has found that specific emotions are associated with unique appraisals, which can impact motivations and behaviours (Lerner et al., 2015; Roseman, 2011; Shaver et al., 1987; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985).”

“We strongly agree that pioneers of the approach, such as Ekman, have exaggerated universality and underestimated variability in embodiment, but many proponents of discrete emotions explicitly recognize context effects (e.g., Lang, 2014; Roseman, 2011).”

“In his articulation of psychological constructionism, Russell (2003) claimed that the entrenched use of familiar, commonsense psychological concepts stands in the way of scientific progress.”

“Emotions are inherently motivational (Roseman, 2011), that is, their adaptive function is to inspire us to take action based on our situation after we have appraised it.”

“Multiple feelings can arise in response to the same event (Roseman, 2011).”

“These emotions all belong to the same family, namely distancing emotions (Roseman, 2011, 2013).”

“This is because both sets of feelings of fear and hope are known to arise out of uncertainty but differ in their focus on positive (opportunity/gain) or negative (threat/loss) outcomes (Roseman, 2011; Lebel, 2017).”

“According to these theories, emotions are considered as mental states that motivate people towards specific actions and interactions by means of action tendencies and bodily reactions (e.g., Roseman, 2011; Smith and Lazarus, 1990; Zeelenberg and Pieters, 2006).”

“Some examples were presented in (Roseman, 2011) and a more complete state-of-the-art of action tendencies in literature can be found in (Bossuyt, 2012).”

“Sadness is an emotion that is linked to weakening the approach system, passivity, and a general avoidance orientation (Carver, 2004; Frijda, 1986; Roseman, 2011).”

“Specifically, “ emotional ” actions are posited to be stimulus-driven, more impulsive or automatic, and potentially less reliant on cost-benefit analyses (Frijda, 2010; Roseman, 2011).”

“Because TGNC youth described emotion appraisal throughout their interviews, we determined that the most appropriate existing theoretical model to adapt for this study would be the appraisal model of affect (Roseman, 2001; 2011; 2013).”