Identity in Emerging Adulthood: Reviewing the Field and Looking Forward

Schwartz, Seth J.; Zamboanga, Byron L.; Luyckx, Koen; Meca, Alan; Ritchie, Rachel A.

doi:10.1177/2167696813479781

Cited by 422Identity, Memory, and TherapyPersonality Traits and PsychologyChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Identity in Emerging Adulthood: Reviewing the Field and Looking Forward

Schwartz, Seth J., Zamboanga, Byron L., Luyckx, Koen, Meca, Alan, Ritchie, Rachel A.·2013·Emerging Adulthood

DOI 10.1177/2167696813479781

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Abstract

The present article presents a review of identity status-based theory and research with adolescents and emerging adults, with some coverage of related approaches such as narrative identity and identity style. In the first section, we review Erikson’s theory of identity and early identity status research examining differences in personality and cognitive variables across statuses. We then review two contemporary identity models that extend identity status theory and explicitly frame identity development as a dynamic and iterative process. We also review work that has focused on specific domains of identity. The second section of the article discusses mental and physical health correlates of identity processes and statuses. The article concludes with recommendations for future identity research with adolescent and emerging adult populations.

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Self-identity formation is a normative developmental process for adolescents and emerging adults.
“Self-identity formation is one such normative developmental process for adolescents and emerging adults (Schwartz et al., 2013).”
From Identity Development and Social-Emotional Disorders During Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Schwartz et al., 2013

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Vleioras, G., & Bosma, H. A. (2004) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.09.001 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Measuring Identity From an Eriksonian Perspective: Two Sides of the Same Coin?
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Wang, W., & Olthuis, J. V. (2009) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890802634266 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citation
Doing Well: The Relationship of Identity Status to Three Conceptions of Well-Being
Waterman, A. S. (2007) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283480701600769 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
RELIGION AND HEALTH: A REVIEW AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Lee, B. Y., & Newberg, A. B. (2005) · Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2005.00674.x · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Global versus domain-specific statuses in identity research: a comparison of two self-report measures
Goossens, L. (2001) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1006/jado.2001.0438 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Identity Development, Coping, and Adjustment in Emerging Adults With a Chronic Illness: The Sample Case of Type 1 Diabetes
Luyckx, K., Seiffge‐Krenke, I., Schwartz, S. J., Goossens, L., Weets, I., Hendrieckx, C., & Groven, C. (2008) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.04.005 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citation
Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity as Predictors of Drug Norms and Drug Use Among Preadolescents in the US Southwest
Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Hecht, M. L., & Sills, S. J. (2004) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1081/ja-120038030 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Developmental Antecedents of Young Adult Civic Engagement
Obradović, J., & Masten, A. S. (2007) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888690709336720 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Ego Identity Status and Identity Processing Orientation: The Moderating Role of Commitment
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Identity styles and causality orientations: in search of the motivational underpinnings of the identity exploration process
Soenens, B., Berzonsky, M. D., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., & Goossens, L. (2005) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.551 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Developmental Typologies of Identity Formation and Adjustment in Female Emerging Adults: A Latent Class Growth Analysis Approach
Luyckx, K., Schwartz, S. J., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Beyers, W. (2008) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00573.x · Cited by 157 · see citing works
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Relationship Trajectories and Psychological Well-Being Among Sexual Minority Youth
Bauermeister, J. A., Johns, M. M., Sandfort, T. G. M., Eisenberg, A. L., Grossman, A. H., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2010) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9557-y · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Identity statuses in young adult employees: Prospective relations with work engagement and burnout
Luyckx, K., Duriez, B., Klimstra, T. A., & Witte, H. D. (2010) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.06.002 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
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Sexual Identity as a Universal Process
Dillon, F. R., Worthington, R. L., & Moradi, B. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_27 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
On the relationship between substance use and personality traits: Abstainers are not maladjusted
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Acculturation and Substance Use Among Hispanic Early Adolescents: Investigating the Mediating Roles of Acculturative Stress and Self-Esteem
Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., Jarvis, L. H., & Tyne, K. V. (2009) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-009-0182-z · Cited by 140 · see citing works
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Terrorism: An Identity Theory Perspective
Schwartz, S. J., Dunkel, C. S., & Waterman, A. S. (2009) · Studies in Conflict and Terrorism · doi:10.1080/10576100902888453 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
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Race, Ethnicity, and Emerging Adulthood
Syed, M., & Mitchell, L. L. (2013) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696813480503 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Foundations of psychosocial dynamic personality theory of collective people
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Development, reliability, and validity of the Measure of Sexual Identity Exploration and Commitment (MOSIEC).
Worthington, R. L., Navarro, R. L., Savoy, H. B., & Hampton, D. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.22 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Identity styles, dimensions, statuses, and functions: Making connections among identity conceptualizations
Crocetti, E., Sica, L. S., Schwartz, S. J., Serafini, T. E., & Meeus, W. (2012) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2012.09.001 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
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Identity Development Among Sexual-Minority Youth
Savin‐Williams, R. C. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_28 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
The Lower Age Boundaries of Identity Development
Archer, S. L. (1982) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130083 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The Structure of Identity Consolidation: Multiple Correlated Constructs or One Superordinate Construct?
Schwartz, S. J. (2007) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283480701319583 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
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Rites of Passage in Emerging Adulthood: Perspectives of Young Mormons
Nelson, L. J. (2003) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.73 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Continuity and Change in Glycemic Control Trajectories From Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood
Luyckx, K., & Seiffge‐Krenke, I. (2009) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc08-1990 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citation
Family Functioning, Identity, and Problem Behavior in Hispanic Immigrant Early Adolescents
Schwartz, S. J., Pantin, H. M., Prado, G. J., Sullivan, S., & Szapocznik, J. (2005) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431605279843 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
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Adolescent identity exploration: a test of Erikson's theory of transitional crisis.
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'You'd Better Wait!'--Socio-economic Background and Timing of First Marriage versus First Cohabitation
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Longitudinal Changes in Religiosity Among Emerging Adult College Students
Stoppa, T. M., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2010) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00630.x · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Ego identity: Developmental differences and experimental substance use among adolescents
Jones, R. M., & Hartmann, B. R. (1988) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/s0140-1971(88)80034-4 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The relationship between identity, intimacy, and midlife well-being: Findings from the Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study.
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Ethnic Identity
Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_33 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Characterizing the Self-System over Time in Adolescence: Internal Structure and Associations with Internalizing Symptoms
Schwartz, S. J., Klimstra, T. A., Luyckx, K., Hale, W. W., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2012) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9751-1 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citation
Acculturation status and heavy alcohol use among Mexican American college students: Investigating the moderating role of gender
Zamboanga, B. L., Raffaelli, M., & Horton, N. J. (2006) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.02.018 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
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Midlife Crisis: A Debate
Freund, A. M., & Ritter, J. O. (2009) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000227322 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Positive career orientation as an inhibitor of adolescent problem behaviour
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When Hatred is Bred in the Bone: Psycho-cultural Foundations of Contemporary Terrorism
Post, J. M. (2005) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2005.00434.x · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Identity in Adolescent Survivors of Childhood Cancer
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Identity Exploration and Commitment in Late Adolescence: Correlates of Perfectionism and Mediating Mechanisms on the Pathway to Well–Being
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Adolescent psychological well‐being by identity style
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Identity and spirituality: A psychosocial exploration of the sense of spiritual self.
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Constructions of religiosity, subjective well-being, anxiety, and depression in two cultures: Kuwait and USA
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Identity, regression and development
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Self‐control and ego identity development as predictors of unprotected sex in late adolescent males
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Identity Consolidation and Health Risk Behaviors in College Students
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Self-citation
Longitudinal Relationships Between Family Functioning and Identity Development in Hispanic Adolescents
Schwartz, S. J., Mason, C. A., Pantin, H. M., & Szapocznik, J. (2008) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431608317605 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
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The Role of Epistemic Cognition in Adolescent Identity Formation: Further Evidence
Krettenauer, T. (2005) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-005-4300-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Personal Identity in College and the Work Context: Developmental Trajectories and Psychosocial Functioning
Luyckx, K., Klimstra, T. A., Schwartz, S. J., & Duriez, B. (2013) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1903 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
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The Path from Identity Commitments to Adjustment: Motivational Underpinnings and Mediating Mechanisms
Luyckx, K., Schwartz, S. J., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Goossens, L. (2010) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2010.tb00150.x · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citation
A Commentary on Seth Schwartz's, Review of Identity Theory and Research
Marcia, J. E. (2001) · Identity · doi:10.1207/s1532706xmarcia · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Identity development, personality, and well-being in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Theory, research, and recent advances.
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Heterogeneity in the Transition to Adulthood: The Cases of Australia, Canada, and the United States
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Personal identity in Italy
Crocetti, E., Rabaglietti, E., & Sica, L. S. (2012) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20023 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Economic Resources and Remaining Single: Trends Over Time
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Identity formation in adolescents with congenital cardiac disease: a forgotten issue in the transition to adulthood
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Self-citation
Identity Exploration, Commitment, and Distress: A Cross National Investigation in China, Taiwan, Japan, and the United States
Berman, S. L., You, Y.-F., Schwartz, S. J., Teo, G. W. L., & Mochizuki, K. (2010) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-010-9127-1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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The Relation Between Self-Continuity and Measures of Identity
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Eriksonian Lifespan Theory and Life History Theory: An Integration Using the Example of Identity Formation
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Domain-specific gender comparisons in identity development among college youth: ideology and relationships.
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Foundations of a Psychoanalytic Social Psychology: Neo-Eriksonian Propositions Regarding the Relationship between Psychic Structure and Cultural Institutions
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Ego identity and substance abuse: A comparison of adolescents in residential treatment with adolescents in school
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Religiosity and Alcohol Use in Sexual Minority and Heterosexual Youth and Young Adults
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Globalization and identity development: A Chinese perspective
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Clinical Neuropsychiatry
McAllister, T. W., & Trzepacz, P. T. (1991) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/jnp.3.4.448 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Identity in family processes
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Life Authorship
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Adolescents' Perceptions of Rights as Reflected in Their Views of Citizenship
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Personal identity in Belgium and The Netherlands
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Whither Symbolic Interaction? Reflections on a Personal Odyssey
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EPISTEMIC ASSUMPTIONS: UNDERSTANDING SELF AND THE WORLD (A NOTE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IDENTITY STYLE, WORLD VIEW, AND CONSTRUCTIVIST ASSUMPTIONS USING AN AUSTRALIAN SAMPLE)
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Predicting Borderline Personality Disorder Features from Personality Traits, Identity Orientation, and Attachment Styles in Italian Nonclinical Adults: Issues of Consistency Across Age Ranges
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An integrated developmental model for studying identity content in context
Galliher, R. V., McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000299 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Intersectionality in quantitative health disparities research: A systematic review of challenges and limitations in empirical studies
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The Dangerous Myth of Emerging Adulthood: An Evidence-Based Critique of a Flawed Developmental Theory
Côté, J. E. (2014) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2014.954451 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Understanding identity integration: Theoretical, methodological, and applied issues.
Syed, M., & McLean, K. C. (2016) · Journal des adolescens · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.005 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Turning Point for a Turning Point
Schwartz, S. J. (2016) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696815624640 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Self-citation
From science student to scientist: Predictors and outcomes of heterogeneous science identity trajectories in college.
Robinson, K. A., Perez, T., Nuttall, A. K., Roseth, C. J., & Linnenbrink‐Garcia, L. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000567 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, and Emerging Adulthood
Syed, M., & Mitchell, L. L. (2013) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696813480503 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Identity and Purpose as Predictors of Subjective Well-Being in Emerging Adulthood
Sumner, R., Burrow, A. L., & Hill, P. L. (2014) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696814532796 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Eating Disorders During Emerging Adulthood: A Systematic Scoping Review
Potterton, R., Richards, K. L., Allen, K. L., & Schmidt, U. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03062 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Toward an Intersectional Approach in Developmental Science
Ghavami, N., Katsiaficas, D., & Rogers, L. O. (2016) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2015.12.001 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Acculturation and perceived discrimination: Predictors of substance use trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood among Hispanics
Unger, J. B., Schwartz, S. J., Huh, J., Soto, D. W., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. A. (2014) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.04.014 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citation
Change in diet in the period from adolescence to early adulthood: a systematic scoping review of longitudinal studies
Winpenny, E. M., Penney, T. L., Corder, K. L., White, M. J., & van Sluijs, E. M. F. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-017-0518-7 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
What prevents young adults from seeking help? Barriers toward help‐seeking for eating disorder symptomatology
Ali, K., Fassnacht, D. B., Farrer, L. M., Rieger, E., Feldhege, J., Moessner, M., Griffiths, K. M., & Bauer, S. (2020) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23266 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Science identity development trajectories in a gateway college chemistry course: Predictors and relations to achievement and STEM pursuit
Robinson, K. A., Perez, T., Carmel, J. H., & Linnenbrink‐Garcia, L. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.01.004 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Changes in Religiosity Across the Transition to Young Adulthood
Chan, M., Tsai, K. M., & Fuligni, A. J. (2014) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0157-0 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Life Stage Concepts across History and Cultures: Proposal for a New Field on Indigenous Life Stages
Arnett, J. J. (2016) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000453627 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Identity Development and Social-Emotional Disorders During Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Potterton, R., Austin, A., Robinson, L., Webb, H., Allen, K. L., & Schmidt, U. (2022) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01536-7 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Relationships Between Identity and Well-Being in Italian, Polish, and Romanian Emerging Adults
Karaś, D., Cieciuch, J., Negru‐Subtirica, O., & Crocetti, E. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0668-9 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Constructing Adulthood
Sharon, T. (2015) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696815579826 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Identity development in the digital context
Soh, S., Talaifar, S., & Harari, G. M. (2024) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12940 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Biculturalism dynamics: A daily diary study of bicultural identity and psychosocial functioning
Schwartz, S. J., Meca, A., Ward, C. A., Szabó, Á., Benet‐Martínez, V., Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I., Sznitman, G. A., Cobb, C. L., Szapocznik, J., Unger, J. B., et al. (2019) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.12.007 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citation
The effect of an informal science intervention on middle school girls’ science affinities
Todd, B., & Zvoch, K. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1534022 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
A conceptual review of identity integration across adulthood.
Mitchell, L. L., Adler, J. M., Carlsson, J., Eriksson, P. L., & Syed, M. (2021) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0001246 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Pathway of protection: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and substance use among multiracial youth
Fisher, S. D., Zapolski, T. C. B., Sheehan, C., & Barnes-Najor, J. V. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.03.003 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Applying a Developmental Lens to Youth-Led Participatory Action Research: A Critical Examination and Integration of Existing Evidence
Suleiman, A. B., Ballard, P. J., Hoyt, L. T., & Ozer, E. J. (2019) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x19837871 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood, Criteria for Adulthood, and Identity Development in Greek Studying Youth: A Person-Centered Approach
Galanaki, E. P., & Sideridis, G. D. (2018) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696818777040 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Identity Development in Immigrant Youth
Schwartz, S. J., Meca, A., Cano, M. Á., Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I., & Unger, J. B. (2018) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000335 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citation
Identity development in the late twenties: A never ending story.
Carlsson, J., Wängqvist, M., & Frisén, A. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038745 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Family dynamics during emerging adulthood: reviewing, integrating, and challenging the field
Oliveira, C., Fonseca, G., Sotero, L., Crespo, C., & Relvas, A. P. (2020) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12386 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Individual and generational value change in an adult population, a 12-year longitudinal panel study
Leijen, I., van Herk, H., & Bardi, A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-22862-1 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Identity Centrality and Psychosocial Functioning
Meca, A., Ritchie, R. A., Beyers, W., Schwartz, S. J., Picariello, S., Zamboanga, B. L., Hardy, S. A., Luyckx, K., Kim, S. Y., Whitbourne, S. K., et al. (2015) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696815593183 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Illinois State Foster Youth Advisory Board as a Counterspace for Well-Being through Identity Work: Perspectives of Current and Former Members
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Authors: Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Luyckx, K., Meca, A., & Ritchie, R. A.
Affiliations: University of Miami (US)
Smith College (US)
KU Leuven (BE)
Florida International University (US)
Corresponding author: Schwartz, Seth J.
ORCID: Schwartz, Seth J.
Zamboanga, Byron L.
Luyckx, Koen
Meca, Alan
Venue: Emerging Adulthood
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2013-03-26
Volume: 1
Issue: 2
Pages: 96-113
ISSN: 2167-6968 (ISSN-L)
2167-6984
DOI: 10.1177/2167696813479781
OpenAlex: W2124588192
Cited by: 412
References: 175
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 2
FWCI: 36.60
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Emerging Adulthood (publishedVersion)
Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: identity status, identity construction, adolescence, Erikson's identity theory, narrative identity, identity styles, identity domains, personality, cognitive development, mental health, physical health

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Identity in Emerging Adulthood: Reviewing the Field and Looking Forward

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