The Associations Between Internalized Racism, Racial Identity, and Psychological Distress

Initial levels of hair change internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress only for those with certain levels of racial identity beliefs.

“Initial levels of alteration of physical appearance, internalization of negative stereotypes, and hair change internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress, but only for those with certain levels of racial centrality, private regard, public regard, and assimilationist, humanist, and nationalist ideology beliefs.”

Full cross-lagged panel models revealed no main effects of internalized racism beliefs on psychological distress.

“Full cross-lagged panel models revealed no main effects of internalized racism beliefs on psychological distress.”

Initial levels of internalization of negative stereotypes internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress only for those with certain levels of racial identity beliefs.

“Initial levels of alteration of physical appearance, internalization of negative stereotypes, and hair change internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress, but only for those with certain levels of racial centrality, private regard, public regard, and assimilationist, humanist, and nationalist ideology beliefs.”

Several racial identity beliefs moderated the relationship between internalized racism beliefs and changes in psychological distress over a year later.

“However, several racial identity beliefs moderated the relationship between internalized racism beliefs and changes in psychological distress over a year later.”

Initial levels of alteration of physical appearance internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress only for those with certain levels of racial identity beliefs.

“Initial levels of alteration of physical appearance, internalization of negative stereotypes, and hair change internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress, but only for those with certain levels of racial centrality, private regard, public regard, and assimilationist, humanist, and nationalist ideology beliefs.”

None of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant for depression.

“After controlling for study covariates, belief in a biased representation of history at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = −0.08, SE = 0.10, p = .30), and none of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant.”

Belief in a biased representation of history at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3.

“After controlling for study covariates, belief in a biased representation of history at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = −0.08, SE = 0.10, p = .30), and none of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant.”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to depression distress at moderate levels of private regard (b = −.08, p = .20).

“and moderate (b = −.08, p = .20) levels of private regard”

None of the internalization of negative stereotypes x racial identity interactions was significant for depression.

“After controlling for study covariates, internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = 0.09, SE = 0.08, p = .26), and none of the internalization of negative stereotypes x racial identity interactions was significant.”

Cohort was associated with alteration of physical appearance attitudes at W3, such that participants in the first cohort were more likely to endorse alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3.

“Cohort was associated with alteration of physical appearance attitudes at W3, such that participants in the first cohort were more likely to endorse alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3.”

Women were more likely than men to have higher internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs at W3.

“Women were more likely than men to have higher internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs at W3.”

The hair change x private regard interaction predicting depression distress at W3 was significant (β = −0.21, SE = 0.07, p = .01).

“However, the hair change x private regard interaction was significant (β = −0.21, SE = 0.07, p = .01).”

W1 assimilationist ideology was negatively associated with endorsement of alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3.

“However, W1 assimilationist ideology was negatively associated with endorsement of alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3 (β = −.17, p = .003), and W1 anxiety distress was positively associated with endorsement ofW3 alteration of physical appearance beliefs (β = .19, p = .02).”

The internalization of negative stereotypes x racial centrality interaction predicting anxiety distress at W3 was statistically significant (β = 0.15, p = .04).

“however, the internalization of negative stereotypes x racial centrality interaction was statistically significant (β = 0.15, p = .04)”

Alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W1 did not predict greater anxiety distress at W3.

“Similar to depression distress, alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W1 did not predict greater anxiety distress at W3 (β = −0.07, SE = 0.06, p = .25). However, the interactions between alteration of physical appearance and private regard (β = −0.20, SE = 0.04, p = .01), and humanist (β = −0.13, SE = 0.06, p = .04) ideology were significant.”

Age at W1 was negatively associated with hair change beliefs at W3 (b = −.16, p = .01).

“Age at W1 was negatively associated with hair change beliefs at W3 (b = −.16, p = .01).”

All dimensions of internalized racism, racial identity, and depression and anxiety distress exerted positive auto-regressive effects suggesting a high degree of consistency in these constructs over time.

“These figures demonstrate that all dimensions of internalized racism, racial identity, and depression and anxiety distress exerted positive auto-regressive effects suggesting a high degree of consistency in these constructs over time.”

Internalization of negative stereotypes was unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate levels of racial centrality (b = .06, p = .30).

“and moderate (b = .06, p = .30) levels of racial centrality”

Hair change beliefs at W1 did not predict depression distress at W3 after controlling for study covariates (β = −0.09, SE = 0.07, p = .20).

“After controlling for study covariates, hair change beliefs at W1 did not predict depression distress at W3 (β = −0.09, SE = 0.07, p = .20).”

Internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3.

“After controlling for study covariates, internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = 0.09, SE = 0.08, p = .26), and none of the internalization of negative stereotypes x racial identity interactions was significant.”

Maternal educational attainment at W1 was negatively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3.

“Maternal educational attainment (W1) was negatively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3.”

W1 Hair Change was not positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.

“W1 Alteration of Physical Appearance and Internalization of Negative Stereotypes, but not Hair Change, were positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.”

Internalization of negative stereotypes was unrelated to anxiety distress at low levels of racial centrality (b = −.04, p = .53).

“but unrelated to anxiety distress at low (b = −.04, p = .53)”

W1 alteration of physical appearance beliefs were unassociated with racial identity at W3.

“W1 alteration of physical appearance beliefs were unassociated with racial identity at W3.”

None of the alteration of physical appearance x racial identity interactions was significant for depressive symptom distress.

“After controlling for study covariates, alteration of physical appearance at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = −0.03, SE = 0.09, p = .70), and none of the alteration of physical appearance x racial identity interactions was significant for depressive symptom distress.”

W1 internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs were negatively associated with W3 private regard.

“W1 internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs were negatively associated with W3 private regard (β = −.21, p = .004) and positively associated with W3 humanist ideology (β = .20, p = .014).”

W1 public regard beliefs were positively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3.

“Specifically, W1 public regard beliefs were positively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3, while nationalist ideology at W1 was negatively associated with W3 biased representation of history beliefs (Figure 1A).”

Internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 did not predict greater anxiety distress at W3 after controlling for study covariates (β = 0.07, SE = 0.05, p = .30).

“After controlling for study covariates, internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 did not predict greater anxiety distress at W3 (β = 0.07, SE = 0.05, p = .30)”

W1 internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs were positively associated with W3 humanist ideology.

“W1 internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs were negatively associated with W3 private regard (β = −.21, p = .004) and positively associated with W3 humanist ideology (β = .20, p = .014).”

Racial identity at W1 was unrelated to W3 internalization of negative stereotypes.

“Racial identity at W1 was unrelated to W3 internalization of negative stereotypes.”

W1 anxiety distress was positively associated with endorsement of W3 alteration of physical appearance beliefs.

“However, W1 assimilationist ideology was negatively associated with endorsement of alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3 (β = −.17, p = .003), and W1 anxiety distress was positively associated with endorsement ofW3 alteration of physical appearance beliefs (β = .19, p = .02).”

W1 Biased Representation of History was positively correlated with W3 anxiety distress.

“W1 Biased Representation of History was positively correlated with W3 anxiety distress.”

Alteration of physical appearance beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at high levels of humanist ideology, but not low and moderate levels of humanist ideology.

“Alteration of physical appearance beliefs also were negatively associated with anxiety distress at high (b = −.18, p = .03), but not low (b = .05, p = .51) and moderate (b = −.06, p = .25) levels of humanist ideology (Figure 2B).”

Nationalist ideology at W1 was negatively associated with W3 biased representation of history beliefs.

“Specifically, W1 public regard beliefs were positively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3, while nationalist ideology at W1 was negatively associated with W3 biased representation of history beliefs (Figure 1A).”

Among individuals who endorsed the strongest internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs, those with the highest levels of racial centrality reported the highest levels of anxiety distress.

“Among individuals who endorsed the strongest internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs, those with the highest levels of racial centrality reported the highest levels of anxiety distress.”

Age at W1 was negatively correlated with W3 internalization of negative stereotypes.

“Age (W1) was negatively correlated with W3 internalization of negative stereotypes (β = −.21, p = .005).”

W1 Alteration of Physical Appearance was positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.

“W1 Alteration of Physical Appearance and Internalization of Negative Stereotypes, but not Hair Change, were positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.”

W1 biased representation of history was unrelated to W3 anxiety distress.

“W1 biased representation of history was unrelated to W3 anxiety distress (β = −0.00, SE = 0.07, p = .99). None of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant.”

Racial identity at W1 was unrelated to W3 hair change beliefs.

“Racial identity at W1 was unrelated to W3 hair change beliefs.”

W1 Internalization of Negative Stereotypes was positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.

“W1 Alteration of Physical Appearance and Internalization of Negative Stereotypes, but not Hair Change, were positively correlated with W3 depression and anxiety distress.”

None of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant for anxiety.

“W1 biased representation of history was unrelated to W3 anxiety distress (β = −0.00, SE = 0.07, p = .99). None of the biased representation of history x racial identity interactions was statistically significant.”

The two-way interactions predicting anxiety distress were not significant for alteration of physical appearance and the other racial identity dimensions.

“The two-way interactions predicting anxiety distress were not significant for alteration of physical appearance and the other racial identity dimensions.”

Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with depression distress at high levels of private regard (b = −.25, p = .01).

“Simple slope analyses revealed that hair change beliefs were negatively associated with depression distress at high levels of private regard (b = −.25, p = .01)”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to depression distress at low levels of private regard (b = .08, p = .39).

“but unrelated to depression distress at low (b = .08, p = .39)”

Internalization of negative stereotypes was positively associated with anxiety distress at high levels of racial centrality (b = .15, p = .03).

“Simple slope analyses revealed that internalization of negative stereotypes was positively associated with anxiety distress at high levels of racial centrality (b = .15, p = .03)”

Individuals with the highest levels of private regard and humanist ideology had the lowest levels of anxiety distress even at high levels of biased representation of history endorsement.

“Individuals with the highest levels of private regard and humanist ideology had the lowest levels of anxiety distress even at high levels of biased representation of history endorsement.”

The interactions between alteration of physical appearance and private regard, and humanist ideology were significant for anxiety distress.

“Similar to depression distress, alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W1 did not predict greater anxiety distress at W3 (β = −0.07, SE = 0.06, p = .25). However, the interactions between alteration of physical appearance and private regard (β = −0.20, SE = 0.04, p = .01), and humanist (β = −0.13, SE = 0.06, p = .04) ideology were significant.”

Alteration of physical appearance at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3.

“After controlling for study covariates, alteration of physical appearance at W1 did not predict greater depression distress at W3 (β = −0.03, SE = 0.09, p = .70), and none of the alteration of physical appearance x racial identity interactions was significant for depressive symptom distress.”

The hair change x private regard interaction predicting anxiety distress at W3 was significant (β = −0.17, SE = 0.04, p = .01).

“hair change x private regard (β = −0.17, SE = 0.04, p = .01)”

The hair change x public regard interaction predicting anxiety distress at W3 was significant (β = 0.15, SE = 0.04, p = .02).

“the hair change x public regard (β = 0.15, SE = 0.04, p = .02)”

The model examining internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs was the only one to reveal a statistically significant link between internalized racism and increased subsequent psychological distress, after taking into account racial identity.

“The model examining internalization of negative stereotypes beliefs was the only one to reveal a statistically significant link between internalized racism and increased subsequent psychological distress, after taking into account racial identity.”

Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at low levels of racial centrality (b = −.18, p = .00).

“Simple slope analyses revealed that hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at low levels of racial centrality (b = −.18, p = .00)”

Bivariate correlations suggested that internalized racism beliefs at W1 were associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms at W3.

“Although bivariate correlations suggested that internalized racism beliefs at W1 were associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms at W3”

Several W1 covariates such as age, gender, maternal educational attainment, prior discrimination experiences and initial levels of psychological distress were related to internalized racism beliefs over time.

“Several W1 covariates such as age, gender, maternal educational attainment, prior discrimination experiences and initial levels of psychological distress were related to internalized racism beliefs over time.”

Higher levels of public regard at W1 were associated with higher levels of biased representation of history beliefs at W3.

“For instance, higher levels of public regard at W1 were associated with higher levels of biased representation of history beliefs at W3”

Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at high levels of private regard (b = −.16, p = .01).

“Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at high levels of private regard (b = −.16, p = .01)”

Higher levels of internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 were associated with lower levels of private regard at W3.

“In the reverse direction (internalized racism → racial identity), higher levels of internalization of negative stereotypes at W1 were associated with lower levels of private regard at W3.”

Alteration of physical appearance beliefs were unrelated to depression distress.

“Alteration of physical appearance beliefs were unrelated to depression distress”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate levels of private regard (b = −.05, p = .23).

“and moderate (b = −.05, p = .23) levels of private regard”

The hair change x nationalist interaction predicting anxiety distress at W3 was significant (β = −0.14, SE = 0.05, p = .03).

“and the hair change x nationalist (β = −0.14, SE = 0.05, p = .03) interactions were significant.”

Hair change beliefs at W1 did not predict anxiety distress at W3 (β = −0.07, SE = 0.04, p = .23).

“As with depression distress, hair change beliefs at W1 did not predict anxiety distress at W3 (β = −0.07, SE = 0.04, p = .23).”

There were bidirectional associations between racial identity and internalized racism.

“There were also bidirectional associations between racial identity and internalized racism.”

Our data reveals small to moderate correlations between internalized racism and racial identity.

“our data, which reveals small to moderate correlations between internalized racism and racial identity”

Hair change beliefs were not associated with anxiety distress at moderate levels of nationalist ideology (b = −.05, p = .23).

“and moderate (b = −.05, p = .23) levels of nationalist ideology”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate levels of racial centrality (b = −.05, p = .23).

“but unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate (b = −.05, p = .23)”

Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at low levels of public regard (b = −.15, p = .01).

“Hair change beliefs were negatively associated with anxiety distress at low levels of public regard (b = −.15, p = .01)”

We did not find overwhelming evidence in this study that internalized racism is linked with changes in psychological distress.

“In contrast to prior research examining internalized racism, we did not find overwhelming evidence in this study that internalized racism is linked with changes in psychological distress.”

Initial levels of assimilationist ideology were negatively associated with alteration of physical appearance beliefs at W3.

“while initial levels of nationalist and assimilationist ideology were negatively associated with biased representation of history and alteration of physical appearance beliefs, respectively, at W3.”

Hair change beliefs were not associated with anxiety distress at low levels of nationalist ideology (b = .06, p = .38).

“but not low (b = .06, p = .38)”

Biased representation of history beliefs were not generally associated with later psychological distress in the context of racial identity beliefs.

“Biased representation of history beliefs such as “Cannibalism was widely practiced in Africa” and “There were no institutions of higher learning in Africa” were not generally associated with later psychological distress in the context of racial identity beliefs.”

Initial levels of nationalist ideology were negatively associated with biased representation of history beliefs at W3.

“while initial levels of nationalist and assimilationist ideology were negatively associated with biased representation of history and alteration of physical appearance beliefs, respectively, at W3.”

Hair change beliefs were associated with decreases in anxiety distress at high levels of nationalist ideology (b = −.15, p = .02).

“Finally, hair change beliefs were associated with decreases in anxiety distress at high (b = −.15, p = .02)”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at low levels of private regard (b = .06, p = .33).

“but unrelated to anxiety distress at low (b = .06, p = .33)”

The general pattern of results did not suggest a link between internalized racism and increased psychological distress after taking into account sociodemographic factors, prior racial discrimination experiences and past psychological distress.

“the general pattern of results did not suggest a link between internalized racism and increased psychological distress after taking into account sociodemographic factors, prior racial discrimination experiences and past psychological distress.”

Maternal educational attainment was associated with decreased biased representation of history beliefs.

“Links between maternal educational attainment and decreased biased representation of history beliefs”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at high levels of racial centrality (b = .08, p = .19).

“and high levels of centrality (b = .08, p = .19; Figure 2E)”

Prior discrimination experiences were associated with decreased endorsement of alteration of physical appearance beliefs.

“and between prior discrimination experiences and decreased endorsement of alteration of physical appearance beliefs also lay the foundation”

The hair change x centrality interaction predicting anxiety distress at W3 was significant (β = 0.22, SE = 0.04, p = .00).

“However, the hair change x centrality (β = 0.22, SE = 0.04, p = .00)”

Those who felt being Black was a central aspect of their identity, who also endorsed negative stereotypical beliefs about Black people experienced greater anxiety distress over time.

“Those who felt being Black was a central aspect of their identity, who also endorsed negative stereotypical beliefs about Black people experienced greater anxiety distress over time.”

Higher levels of hair change beliefs at W1 were associated with less distress from depressive symptoms at W3, but only for those with high levels of private regard beliefs.

“Private regard exhibited a protective-enhancing pattern of resilience, such that higher levels of hair change beliefs at W1 were associated with less distress from depressive symptoms at W3, but only for those with high levels of private regard beliefs.”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate levels of public regard (b = −.05, p = .23).

“but unrelated to anxiety distress at moderate (b = −.05, p = .23)”

Among individuals who endorsed the highest levels of hair change beliefs, those with modest endorsement of racial centrality, low public regard, and high levels of private regard and nationalist ideology experienced the lowest levels of anxiety distress.

“Among individuals who endorsed the highest levels of hair change beliefs, it was those with modest endorsement of racial centrality, low public regard, and high levels of private regard and nationalist ideology who experienced the lowest levels of anxiety distress.”

The two-way interactions predicting W3 anxiety distress were not significant for hair change beliefs and assimilationist, humanist or minority ideology.

“The two-way interactions predicting W3 anxiety distress were not significant for hair change beliefs and assimilationist, humanist or minority ideology.”

Among individuals who strongly endorsed hair change internalized racism beliefs, those with the highest levels of private regard exhibited the lowest levels of depression distress in the sample.

“Among individuals who strongly endorsed hair change internalized racism beliefs, those with the highest levels of private regard exhibited the lowest levels of depression distress in the sample.”

Increased age was associated with decreased internalization of negative stereotypes and hair change beliefs.

“For example, increased age was associated with decreased internalization of negative stereotypes and hair change beliefs”

Hair change beliefs were unrelated to anxiety distress at high levels of public regard (b = .05, p = .45).

“and high (b = .05, p = .45) levels of public regard”

Previous studies have looked at internalized racism as a moderator or mediator between racial discrimination and psychological distress instead of examining the direct effects of internalized racism on psychological well-being.

“Previous studies have looked at internalized racism as a moderator or mediator between racial discrimination and psychological distress (i.e., Graham et al., 2016; Molina & James, 2016; Sosoo et al., 2019) instead of examining the direct effects of internalized racism on psychological well-being.”

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• cites Sosoo et al., 2019Not checked yet

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Hair change attitudes exacerbated the association between racial discrimination and subsequent anxiety symptom distress.

“a recent study examining hair change attitudes found that these attitudes (e.g., “straight hair is better than my natural hair texture”) exacerbated the association between racial discrimination and subsequent anxiety symptom distress (Sosoo et al., 2019).”

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Empirical investigations support the notion that internalized racism dimensions may have direct and indirect effects on African American mental health.

“Taken together, empirical investigations support the notion that internalized racism dimensions may have direct and indirect effects on African American mental health.”

Current literature has not adequately explored the unique impact of internalized racism above and beyond experiences of racial discrimination.

“Despite prior research linking racism-related stress to psychological distress and promising findings regarding the protective function of racial identity in the context of racial discrimination, current literature has not adequately explored the unique impact of internalized racism above and beyond experiences of racial discrimination.”

Prior research supports a link between internalized racism and psychological distress for African Americans.

“In light of evidence linking internalized racism with physical and psychosocial factors associated with psychological well-being (e.g., obesity, perceived stress, sleep problems; Fuller-Rowell et al., 2020; Tull et al., 1999), it is not surprising that prior research (e.g., Taylor et al., 1991) supports a link between internalized racism and psychological distress for African Americans.”

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Internalized racism has been associated with psychological distress among African Americans.

“Internalized racism, or the acceptance of negative stereotypes about one’s own racial group, has been associated with psychological distress among African Americans (e.g., Molina & James, 2016; Mouzon & McLean, 2017; Sosoo et al., 2019)”

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Graham et al. found that internalized racism mediated the relationship between past racist experiences and anxiety symptoms.

“Graham et al. (2016) found that internalized racism mediated the relationship between past racist experiences and anxiety symptoms”

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Over time, internalized racism and racial identity beliefs can combine to influence the psychological well-being of African American emerging adults.

“These findings suggest that, over time, internalized racism and racial identity beliefs can combine to influence the psychological well-being of African American emerging adults.”

Low private regard, low racial centrality, and high assimilationist and humanist ideologies exacerbate the relationship between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms.

“In contrast, it has been shown that low private regard, low racial centrality, and high assimilationist and humanist ideologies exacerbate the relationship between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms, highlighting that some levels and dimensions of racial identity may not be protective in every context (Banks & Kohn-Wood, 2007; Seaton, 2009).”

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African American young adults attending predominantly White universities may be at increased risk of experiencing race-related stress.

“During the developmental period of emerging adulthood, African American young adults, particularly those attending predominantly White universities, may be at increased risk of experiencing race-related stress (Hurd et al., 2014; Smedley et al., 1993).”

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Private regard has been shown to buffer the effects of racial discrimination on mental health symptoms.

“Furthermore, private regard has been shown to buffer the effects of racial discrimination on mental health symptoms (Bynum et al., 2008).”

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Racial identity may be a protective factor against forms of race-related stress such as racial discrimination.

“Racial identity, which can be defined as the significance and meaning that race has in the self-concepts of African Americans (Sellers et al., 1997), may be a protective factor against forms of race-related stress such as racial discrimination.”

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The model examining internalization of negative stereotypes and psychological distress suggested very good fit to the data.

“The fit indices for the model examining internalization of negative stereotypes and psychological distress (Figure 1C) suggested very good fit to the data (CFI = .98, TLI = .94, RSMEA = .03 [.00, .05], χ2(97) = 113.33, p = .12).”

Many past empirical investigations of internalized racism have focused on the internalization of negative stereotypes or self-hatred attitudes.

“Furthermore, as highlighted by Bailey and colleagues (2011), many past empirical investigations of internalized racism have focused on the internalization of negative stereotypes or self-hatred attitudes.”

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Researchers have not determined the moderating role of racial identity on the relationship between internalized racism and psychological distress.

“Second, researchers have not determined the moderating role of racial identity on the relationship between internalized racism and psychological distress.”

The model examining belief in a biased representation of history and psychological distress suggested excellent fit to the data.

“The fit indices for the model examining belief in a biased representation of history and psychological distress suggested excellent fit to the data (CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RSMEA = .00 [.00, .03], χ2(88) = 75.51, p = .83).”

The model examining alteration of physical appearance attitudes and psychological distress suggested excellent fit to the data.

“The fit indices for the model examining alteration of physical appearance attitudes and psychological distress (Figure 1B) suggested excellent fit to the data (CFI = .99, TLI = .97, RSMEA = .03 [.00, .05], χ2(87) = 95.98, p = .24).”

Previous research has provided evidence of construct and predictive validity for the MIBI in large African American college samples.

“Previous research has provided evidence of construct and predictive validity for the MIBI in large African American college samples (e.g., Banks & Kohn-Wood, 2007; Sellers et al., 1997; Willis & Neblett, 2019), with reliability analyses in previous studies producing Cronbach’s alphas that range from .61 to .81.”

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Some subscales in the internalized racism measure had low reliability scores.

“Second, some of the subscales in the internalized racism measure had low reliability scores.”

The study is limited in generalizability because the sample was drawn from a single geographic location and was predominantly female.

“First, we are limited in generalizability since our sample was drawn from a single geographic location and predominantly female.”

Our data and recent work by Fuller-Rowell et al. (2020) do not support the idea that internalized racism and racial identity are identical.

“yet, our data, which reveals small to moderate correlations between internalized racism and racial identity, and recent work by Fuller-Rowell et al. (2020) do not support the idea that the two are identical.”

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Other racial identity beliefs may exacerbate negative psychological distress, particularly when racial identity and internalized racism beliefs are misaligned or individuals grapple with negative beliefs about their identity.

“while others may exacerbate negative psychological distress, particularly when racial identity and internalized racism beliefs are misaligned or individuals grapple with negative beliefs about their identity.”

Racial identity beliefs can interact with internalized racism beliefs to shape subsequent psychological well-being in ways that are both consistent and inconsistent with prior research examining racial identity in the context of other race-related stressors.

“Yet, our results also suggest that racial identity beliefs can interact with internalized racism beliefs to shape subsequent psychological well-being in ways that are both consistent and inconsistent with prior research examining racial identity in the context of other race-related stressors.”

Some racial identity beliefs - most consistently private regard - counteract and mitigate internalized racism beliefs.

“Some racial identity beliefs –most consistently private regard– counteract and mitigate internalized racism beliefs”

Our study suggests that private regard beliefs may also protect against the effects of alteration of physical appearance internalized racism beliefs.

“our study suggests that these racial identity beliefs may also protect against the effects of alteration of physical appearance internalized racism beliefs.”

The results suggest that individuals can both endorse high levels of maladaptive internalized racism beliefs in the context of specific racial identity beliefs, but still report lower levels of psychological distress over time.

“First, the results suggest that individuals can both endorse high levels of maladaptive internalized racism beliefs in the context of specific racial identity beliefs, but still report lower levels of psychological distress over time.”

Our study suggests a more favorable psychological profile for African American young adults with modest racial centrality.

“While racial centrality is found to be protective in many studies of discrimination, our study suggests a more favorable psychological profile for African American young adults with modest racial centrality.”

Our results suggest that humanist ideology, in and of itself, does not confer negative psychological well-being.

“Our results, however, suggest that humanist ideology, in and of itself, does not confer negative psychological well-being.”