Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress

Carter, Robert T.

doi:10.1177/0011000006292033

Cited by 1,316Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchCounseling Practices and SupervisionSocial and Intergroup Psychology

Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress

Carter, Robert T.·2007·The Counseling Psychologist

DOI 10.1177/0011000006292033

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Abstract

The purpose of this article is to discuss the psychological and emotional effects of racism on people of Color. Psychological models and research on racism, discrimination, stress, and trauma will be integrated to promote a model to be used to understand, recognize, and assess race-based traumatic stress to aid counseling and psychological assessment, research, and training.

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Racial trauma produces similar clinical symptoms to PTSD.
“racial trauma produces similar clinical symptoms to that of PTSD (Carter, 2007).”
From Complex Racial Trauma: Evidence, Theory, Assessment, and Treatment (2023) · cites this paper as Carter, 2007
BIPOC individuals rarely identify with one single occurrence of racial trauma; instead, they generally find themselves within two main categories of traumatic experiences based on their skin color: major racial trauma and everyday racial trauma.
“BIPOC individuals rarely identify with one single occurrence of racial trauma. Instead, they generally find themselves within two main categories of traumatic experiences based on their skin color: major racial trauma and everyday racial trauma”
From Complex Racial Trauma: Evidence, Theory, Assessment, and Treatment (2023) · cites this paper as Carter, 2007
The RBTSSS is based on the race-based traumatic stress injury theory previously developed by Carter (2007).
“The scale is based on the race-based traumatic stress injury theory previously developed by Carter (2007).”
From Complex Racial Trauma: Evidence, Theory, Assessment, and Treatment (2023) · cites this paper as Carter, 2007

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Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
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“That’s My Number One Fear in Life. It’s the Police”: Examining Young Black Men’s Exposures to Trauma and Loss Resulting From Police Violence and Police Killings
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Potential Impact of COVID-19–Related Racial Discrimination on the Health of Asian Americans
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Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents.
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Perceived Discrimination and Hypertension Among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study
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Impostor feelings as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health among racial/ethnic minority college students.
Cokley, K., Smith, L., Bernard, D., Hurst, A., Jackson, S., Stone, S., Awosogba, O., Saucer, C., Bailey, M., & Roberts, D. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000198 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
From “crib to coffin”: Navigating coping from racism-related stress throughout the lifespan of Black Americans.
Jones, S. C. T., Anderson, R. E., Gaskin, A. L., Sawyer, B. A., Applewhite, K., & Metzger, I. W. (2020) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/ort0000430 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
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An exploratory examination of the associations among racial and ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms in a college student population.
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From the Margins to the Center: Ethnic Minority Women and the Mental Health Effects of Sexual Assault
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Racial and ethnic differences in bullying: Review and implications for intervention
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Addressing the “Myth” of Racial Trauma: Developmental and Ecological Considerations for Youth of Color
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<scp>EMBR</scp> ace: Developing a Racial Socialization Intervention to Reduce Racial Stress and Enhance Racial Coping among Black Parents and Adolescents
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Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision
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American Indian historical trauma: Anticolonial prescriptions for healing, resilience, and survivance.
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Women and Suicidal Behavior
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Racial/ethnic socialization mediates perceived racism and the racial identity of African American adolescents.
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Racial discrimination as race-based trauma, coping strategies, and dissociative symptoms among emerging adults.
Polanco-Roman, L. A., Danies, A., & Anglin, D. M. (2016) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000125 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
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Healing Interpersonal and Racial Trauma: Integrating Racial Socialization Into Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for African American Youth
Metzger, I. W., Anderson, R. E., Are, F., & Ritchwood, T. (2021) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559520921457 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
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Authors: Carter, R. T.
Affiliations: Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author: Carter, Robert T.
ORCID: Carter, Robert T.
Venue: The Counseling Psychologist
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2007-01
Volume: 35
Issue: 1
Pages: 13-105
ISSN: 0011-0000 (ISSN-L)
1552-3861
DOI: 10.1177/0011000006292033
OpenAlex: W2138480196
Cited by: 1,316
References: 182
Citations by year: 2026: 95 · 2025: 126 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 150 · 2021: 111 · 2020: 141 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 37
FWCI: 32.40
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: The Counseling Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: racism, psychological harm, psychological trauma, people of color, racial trauma, discrimination, stress, trauma, psychological assessment, counseling

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Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress

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