Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: a meta-analysis
Abstract
This article summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies analyzed with random effects models yielded an omnibus effect size of r = .17, suggesting a modest relationship between the 2 constructs. The relationship was somewhat stronger among adolescents and young adults than among adults over age 40. No differences were observed across participant race, gender, or socioeconomic status, which findings support the general relevance of ethnic identity across people of color. Studies correlating ethnic identity with self-esteem and positive well-being yielded average effect sizes twice as large as those from studies correlating ethnic identity with personal distress or mental health symptoms. Ethnic identity was thus more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts.
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A meta-analysis of 184 studies found positive associations between ethnic identity and well-being, with stronger associations for adolescents and emerging adults.
“A meta-analysis of 184 studies found positive associations between ethnic identity and well-being, with stronger associations for adolescents and emerging adults (Smith and Silva, 2011).”
From Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data (2018) · cites this paper as Smith and Silva, 2011
Higher levels of ethnic identity have been associated with positive physical and mental health outcomes including less internalizing and externalizing risk behaviors across youth of various ethnic and racial backgrounds.
“Higher levels of ethnic identity have been associated with positive physical and mental health outcomes including less internalizing and externalizing risk behaviors across youth of various ethnic and racial backgrounds (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Smith and Silva, 2011; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015).”
From Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data (2018) · cites this paper as Smith and Silva, 2011
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Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 183 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., Seaton, E., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12196 · Cited by 1,245 · see citing works
“…and content (see discussion of limitations of existing ERI measures in Schwartz et al., in press), most ERI studies have been cross-sectional (Smith & Silva, 2011), and the few studies that have been longitudinal have been characterized by long time lags between time points (e.g., annual or…”
Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., Schwartz, S. J., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., French, S., Yip, T., et al. (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12200 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
“For example, a recent meta-analysis suggests that an achieved, positive ethnic identity is favorably associated with self-esteem and negatively associated with depressive symptoms among ethnic minority individuals (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Jagers, R. J., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Williams, B. V. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032 · Cited by 778 · see citing works
“As a result, there is a voluminous literature on ethnic/racial identity (ERI) development (cf. Rivas-Drake, Seaton, et al., 2014; Rivas-Drake, Syed, et al., 2014; T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundBombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461513503380 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
“Ethnic and cultural identity is considered to be an important determinant of health among minority group members (T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundWong, Y. J., Ho, M.-H. R., Wang, S.-Y., & Miller, I. S. K. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000176 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
“Following in part the coding scheme used by previous meta-analyses on mental health (Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013), the outcome variables were categorized as (a) negative mental health: depression, psychological distress/stress, substance use, body image problems, other psychological…”
MethodTransgender Youth of Color and Resilience: Negotiating Oppression and Finding Support
Singh, A. A. (2012) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0149-z · Cited by 433 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of acculturation/enculturation and mental health.
Yoon, E., Chang, C.-T., Kim, S., Clawson, A., Cleary, S., Hansen, M., Bruner, J. P., Chan, T. K., & Gomes, A. M. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030652 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
van de Vijver, F. J. R., Berry, J. W., & Celenk, O. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316219218.007 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Feeling Good, Happy, and Proud: A Meta-Analysis of Positive Ethnic–Racial Affect and Adjustment
Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., Lee, R., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12175 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Lui, P. P. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038449 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Unravelling the impact of ethnicity on health in Europe: the HELIUS study
Stronks, K., Snijder, M. B., Peters, R. J. G., Prins, M., Schene, A. H., & Zwinderman, A. H. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-402 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“Identity is clearly a dimension of ethnicity in that it influences the occurrence of health problems, operating through a psychosocial or behavioural mechanism, social participation, or buffering the effects of discrimination [36,37].”
BackgroundHuguley, J. P., Wang, M., Vasquez, A. C., & Guo, J. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000187 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
“…youth of color, a strong ethnic–racial identity positively predicts several prosocial developmental outcomes, including senses of well-being and self-esteem (Kiang et al., 2006; Phinney, 1991; Smith & Silva, 2011) and academic motivation and achievement (Chavous et al., 2008; Hughes et al., 2009).”
BackgroundZucker, R. A., Gonzalez, R., Feldstein Ewing, S. W., Paulus, M. P., Arroyo, J., Fuligni, A., Morris, A. S., Sanchez, M., & Wills, T. (2018) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.03.004 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of 184 studies found positive associations between ethnic identity and well-being, with stronger associations for adolescents and emerging adults (Smith and Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundStudents’ perceptions of school climate as determinants of wellbeing, resilience and identity
Aldridge, J. M., Fraser, B. J., Fozdar, F., Ala’i, K. G., Earnest, J., & Afari, E. (2015) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/1365480215612616 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“It is possible that this lower value of ethnic identity could influence the correlations between ethnic identity and wellbeing within our sample (e.g. Carter et al., 2005; T. B. Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundRacial Identity and Well-Being among African Americans
Hughes, M., Kiecolt, K. J., Keith, V. M., & Demo, D. H. (2015) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0190272514554043 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, and Emerging Adulthood
Syed, M., & Mitchell, L. L. (2013) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696813480503 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Research has clearly established the importance of ethnic identity for racial/ethnic minorities with regard to positive psychological functioning and well-being (Quintana, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundA Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity
Williams, C. D., Byrd, C. M., Quintana, S. M., Anicama, C., Kiang, L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Calzada, E. J., Pabón Gautier, M., Ejesi, K., Tuitt, N. R., et al. (2020) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“As in adolescence, ERI is associated with positive outcomes, particularly in adults under 40 (Smith & Silva, 2011), and centrality can buffer the negative psychological effects of discrimination (Yip et al., 2019).”
BackgroundGiamo, L. S., Schmitt, M. T., & Outten, H. R. (2012) · Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029729 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Identities: A developmental social-psychological perspective
Crocetti, E., Albarello, F., Meeus, W., & Rubini, M. (2022) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2022.2104987 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“Individual cognitions and symbolic processes Besides producing beneficial outcomes for in-group members such as selfesteem enhancement (Smith & Silva, 2011; Tajfel & Turner, 1979), social identity processes also have important implications for intergroup relationships.”
BackgroundMinority stress, ethnic identity, and depression among Latino/a college students.
Arbona, C., & Jiménez, C. A. (2013) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034914 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“…identity (Smith & Silva, 2011), may be explained by the self-categorization theory that proposes that individuals are likely to be most sensitive to contextual factors that are relevant to their salient identities (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987, as cited in Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultSyed, M., Walker, L. H. M., Lee, R. M., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., Armenta, B. E., & Huynh, Q. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030564 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“A recent metaanalysis found an average effect size of r .25 for the association between ethnic identity and aspects of positive well-being (e.g., self-esteem, global well-being; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGummadam, P., Pittman, L. D., & Ioffe, M. (2015) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2015.1048844 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“…a moderate association between ethnic identity and the well-being of ethnic minority individuals (r = .17), although stronger effect sizes were found with measures of positive well-being (i.e., self-worth) as compared to maladaptive functioning (i.e., depressive symptoms; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundPark, N., Song, H., & Lee, K. M. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.037 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis on 184 studies also confirmed that ethnic identity significantly affects psychological well-being and other mental health symptoms (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundTorres, L., & Taknint, J. T. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000077 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Correa‐Velez, I., Gifford, S. M., & McMichael, C. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.017 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“However, although ethnic identity may be a mediator between other predictors and wellbeing, there is also evidence that a direct but modest positive relationship exists between ethnic identity and wellbeing, and this relationship is stronger among adolescents and young adults (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundLuyten, P., & Fonagy, P. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.008 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Williamson, L. D., Smith, M. A. L., & Bigman, C. A. (2019) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2019.1669742 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Given the overlapping nature of racial and ethnic identity (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011) and linked fate (Dawson, 1994; Simien, 2005), post-hoc analyses were conducted to determine whether these constructs may be playing a role in this association.”
BackgroundBrown, S. D., Unger Hu, K. A., Mevi, A. A., Hedderson, M. M., Shan, J., Quesenberry, C. P., & Ferrara, A. (2014) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034749 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“For example, a meta-analysis of 184 studies, over 70% of which used the MEIM, associated ethnic identity with well-being among racial and ethnic minorities (e.g., greater self-esteem; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodSchwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., Knight, G. P., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Rivas‐Drake, D., Lee, R. M., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12201 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Rogers‐Sirin, L., Ryce, P., & Sirin, S. R. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9129-3_2 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Strong ethnic identity is associated with more positive mental health outcomes (Phinney et al. 2001; Smith and Silva 2011).”
BackgroundMcClain, S., Beasley, S. T., Jones, B., Awosogba, O., Jackson, S., & Cokley, K. (2016) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/jmcd.12040 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Causadias, J. M., Vitriol, J. A., & Atkin, A. L. (2018) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000099 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Similarly, we are unaware of meta-analytic evidence indicating that culture is more influential for minorities than it is for Whites, in part because cultural studies3 on Whites remain scarce (Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013).”
BackgroundÇelebi, E. Y., Verkuyten, M., & Bağci, S. Ç. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2299 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Psychoanalytic theory and cultural competence in psychotherapy.
Tummala–Narra, P. (2016) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14800-000 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Newman, A., Nielsen, I. L., Smyth, R., Hirst, G., & Kennedy, S. (2017) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2017.09.005 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Social identification and depression: A meta-analysis
Postmes, T., Wichmann, L. J., van Valkengoed, A. V., & van der Hoef, H. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2508 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Rosiers, S. E. D., Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I., Zamboanga, B. L., Huang, S., Baezconde-Garbanati, L. A., Villamar, J. A., Soto, D. W., Pattarroyo, M., et al. (2013) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-013-0419-1 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“Cultural identifications refer to ethnic and national identity—identifying with one's heritage and receiving cultural groups (see Smith and Silva 2011; and Schildkraut 2011, for reviews of the ethnic and national identity literatures, respectively).”
Perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among immigrant-origin adolescents.
Tummala–Narra, P., & Claudius, M. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032960 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“…with ethnic minority adolescents and young adults indicate a negative relationship between ethnic identity and psychological distress (e.g., lower self-esteem, depressive symptoms) (Costigan, Koryzma, Hua, & Chance, 2010; Rivas- Drake et al., 2008; Rogers-Sirin & Gupta, 2012; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStraiton, M., Aambø, A. K., & Johansen, R. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6649-9 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Another form of resilience may be strong ethnic identification, which is associated with higher self-esteem and lower levels of depression [30].”
BackgroundSilva, N. D., Dillon, F. R., Verdejo, T. R., Sánchez, M., & Rosa, M. R. D. L. (2017) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000017692111 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“…that lower socioeconomic status, more time in the U.S., and undocumented immigration status (documented versus undocumented) are associated with acculturative stress and psychological distress (e.g., Albrecht & McVeigh, 2012; Finch & Vega, 2003; Sanchez et al., 2014; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundRace/ethnicity, nativity, and lifetime risk of mental disorders in US adults
Álvarez, K., Fillbrunn, M. K., Green, J. G., Jackson, J. S., Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Sadikova, E., Sampson, N. A., & Alegria, M. M. (2018) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1644-5 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Who Am I, Who Are We? Erikson and a Transactional Approach to Identity Research
Rogers, L. O. (2018) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2018.1523728 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“…or social groups (e.g., Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998; Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and, accordingly, to examine the implications of identity for individual well-being or intergroup processes (Abrams & Hogg, 2006; Kteily & Richeson, 2016; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Schotte, K., Stanat, P., & Edele, A. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0737-x · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“…may also have negative effects on psychological adaptation (e.g., Yip et al. 2008), the literature predominantly suggests a positive relationship between ethnic identification and psychological adaptation (e.g., Gartner et al. 2014; Phinney et al. 1997; Smith and Silva 2011; Verkuyten 1995).”
BackgroundForrest-Bank, S. S., & Cuellar, M. J. (2018) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/svx023 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
The many faces of expatriate identity
Adams, B. G., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2015) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.05.009 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Shepherd, S. M., Esqueda, C. W., Paradies, Y., Sivasubramaniam, D., Sherwood, J., & Brockie, T. (2018) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-018-0744-x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Gartner, M., Kiang, L., & Supple, A. J. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-0044-0 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“With this multidimensional conceptualization in mind, prior work has consistently linked various subscales of ethnic identity with positive adolescent outcomes, including strengthened self-esteem, social competence, academic motivation, and positive affect (Hughes et al. 2009; Rivas-Drake et al. 2009; Smith and Silva…”
BackgroundCOVID-19 anti-Asian racism: A tripartite model of collective psychosocial resilience.
Cheng, H., Kim, H. Y., Reynolds, J. D., Tsong, Y., & Wong, Y. J. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000808 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Hassanli, N., Walters, T., & Williamson, J. (2020) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669582.2020.1797756 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…the importance of Ethnic PSOC in developing social connections for festival attendees to enhance their well-being is noted (Phinney et al., 2001; Smith & Silva, 2011; Sonn & Fisher, 1996), connections to other levels of community outside of the Ethnic PSOC - such as the Migrant PSOC identified…”
BackgroundLawton, K. E., & Gerdes, A. C. (2014) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0168-0 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Ethnic identity describes an individual’s perceived inclusion and alignment with an ethnic group (Smith and Silva 2010) and may be an important predictor of mental health outcomes for Latino adolescents, particularly given the developmental importance of identity formation during adolescence.”
BackgroundWei, M., Liao, K. Y., Heppner, P. P., Chao, R., & Ku, T. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025473 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“In a recent meta-analysis, the average effect size for ethnic identity on self-esteem or personal well-being was twice as large as effect sizes of ethnic identity on personal distress for people of color (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundAcculturation research: Challenges, complexities, and possibilities.
Birman, D., & Simon, C. D. (2013) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14189-011 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Lucas, T., Wegner, R., Pierce, J. M., Lumley, M. A., Laurent, H. K., & Granger, D. A. (2016) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000406 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“This concern is attenuated by prospectively administering individual difference measures before stress induction, and by a considerable body of literature that suggests that perceived discrimination and racial identity are causally implicated in racial minority stress and well-being (26,34).”
BackgroundNelson, S. C., Syed, M., Tran, A. G. T. T., Hu, A., & Lee, R. M. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000597 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
An Analysis of Methods for Intercultural Training
Fowler, S. M., & Yamaguchi, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108854184.008 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Acculturation and Well-Being Among College Students From Immigrant Families
Schwartz, S. J., Waterman, A. S., UmañaTaylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., Kim, S. Y., Vazsonyi, A. T., Huynh, Q., Whitbourne, S. K., Park, I. J. K., Hudson, M., et al. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21847 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Effects of Self-Esteem and Ethnic Identity
Kim, E., Hogge, I., & Salvisberg, C. (2014) · Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1177/0739986314527733 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Due to these mixed results in the literature, support for the buffering role of ethnic identity against culture-related stress is inconclusive, which “indicates a need for much clarity regarding its exact influence” (Smith & Silva 2011, p. 52).”
ResultAcculturation, discrimination, and depression among unauthorized Latinos/as in the United States.
Cobb, C. L., Xie, D., Meca, A., & Schwartz, S. J. (2016) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000118 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Although most research has generally affirmed ethnic identity as a protective factor for Latino/a populations (Smith & Silva, 2011), we found that ethnic identity was positively associated with ED.”
BackgroundInfluentialBurnett‐Zeigler, I., Bohnert, K. M., & Ilgen, M. A. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.08.029 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Syed, M., Juan, M. J. D., & Juang, L. P. (2011) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2011.613581 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“There now is a clear sense of the developmental course of ethnic identity from early adolescence into young adulthood (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006: Pahl & Way, 2006; Syed & Azmitia, 2009) and its relation to mental health and well-being (Quintana, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundUmaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2021) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000519631 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…& Byrnes, Ethnic-Racial Identity and Risk and Resilience 299Human Development 2021;65:293–310 DOI: 10.1159/000519631 2016; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014b; Smith & Silva, 2011), with few exceptions, the effect sizes were not significantly different across panethnic and racial groups included in the…”
BackgroundInfluentialGyberg, F., Frisén, A., Syed, M., Wängqvist, M., & Svensson, Y. (2017) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/2167696817690087 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“However, there has been very little support in prior research for gender differences with regard to the process of ethnic identity (Rivas-Drake, Seaton, et al., 2014; Rivas-Drake, Syed, et al., 2014; Smith & Silva, 2011), although gender differences in content have been scantly studied.”
BackgroundResultVerkuyten, M. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12555 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Chen, A. C., Szalacha, L. A., & Menon, U. (2014) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2014.917648 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Promoting ethnic identity or pride, a dimension of cultural socialization, has been found to be positively associated with individual well-being in ethnic minority populations.(24) DiClemente and colleagues(25) found that promoting young African American women’s ethnic pride motivated them to adapt safer sex practices.”
BackgroundThe Associations Between Internalized Racism, Racial Identity, and Psychological Distress
Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., Bernard, D. L., Neal, A., & Neblett, E. W. (2021) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968211005598 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“…for the protective role of racial identity in the relationship between interpersonal experiences of race-related stress and depressive symptoms (i.e., Smith & Silva, 2011), it is not known if racial identity is protective in the relationship between internalized racism and psychological well-being.”
BackgroundJuang, L. P., Ittel, A., Hoferichter, F., & Gallarin, M. M. (2016) · Journal of college student development · doi:10.1353/csd.2016.0048 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Unequivocally, studies show that greater perceived discrimination is linked with poorer adjustment (Brody et al., 2006; Gibbons et al., 2010; Simons et al., 2006; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWoo, B., Fan, W., Tran, T. V., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2019) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100378 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The relationship between depressive symptoms and BMI: 2005–2018 NHANES data
He, K., Pang, T., & Huang, H. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.046 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Identity Development in Immigrant Youth
Schwartz, S. J., Meca, A., Cano, M. Á., Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I., & Unger, J. B. (2018) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000335 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“In terms of direct effects, using meta-analytic methods, Smith and Silva (2011) found ethnic identity to be positively linked to self-esteem, life satisfaction, and other forms of well-being.”
MethodGonzález, R., Thompson, E. L., Sánchez, M., Morris, A. S., Gonzalez, M. R., Ewing, S. W. F., Mason, M. J., Arroyo, J. A., Howlett, K. D., Tapert, S. F., et al. (2021) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2021.101021 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Zapolski, T. C. B., Fisher, S. D., Banks, D. E., Hensel, D. J., & Barnes-Najor, J. V. (2016) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0605-0 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…for alcohol use and related problems (Caldwell, Sellers, Berat, & Zimmerman, 2004; Marsiglia, Kulis, & Hecht, 2001; Nasim, Belgrave, Jagers, Wilson, & Owens, 2007; Yu & Stiffman, 2007), marijuana use (e.g. Marsiglia, Kulis, Hecht, & Sills, 2004), and drug use more broadly (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
Miranda, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Tsypes, A., & Valderrama, J. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033504 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The Experience of Ethnic and Racial Group Membership Among Immigrant-Origin Adolescents
Tummala–Narra, P., & Sathasivam‐Rueckert, N. (2015) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558415592178 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…well-being (e.g., self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and academic adjustment among adolescents and young adults across gender, social class, educational level, and diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds (Costigan, Koryzma, Hua, & Chance, 2010; Rogers-Sirin & Gupta, 2012; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialNeville, H. A., Oyama, K. E., Cabirou, L. O., & Huggins, J. (2014) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037115 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Linked fate and mental health among African Americans
Monk, E. P. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113340 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Ethnic‐Racial Socialization and Its Correlates in Families of Black–White Biracial Children
Csizmadia, A., Rollins, A., & Kaneakua, J. P. (2014) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12062 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Liu, X., & Zhao, J. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146559 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Park, I. J. K., Schwartz, S. J., Lee, R. M., Kim, M., & Rodríguez, L. (2012) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028640 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Ethnic Identity as a Moderator Ethnic identity is a multidimensional, dynamic construct (Phinney & Ong, 2007; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundFoundations of multicultural psychology: Research to inform effective practice.
Smith, T. B., & Trimble, J. E. (2016) · doi:10.1037/14733-000 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationUmaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Douglass, S. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43645-6_26 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Flores, M. J., Watson, L. B., Allen, L. R., Ford, M., Serpe, C. R., Choo, P. Y., & Farrell, M. (2018) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000279 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Acculturation, cultural identity and well-being
Ward, C. A., & Szabó, Á. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00171-2 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Chun, H., Marin, M., Schwartz, J. P., Pham, A. V., & Castro-Olivo, S. M. (2016) · Journal of Diversity in Higher Education · doi:10.1037/a0039881 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
An invitation to analytic abduction
Halpin, M., & Richard, N. (2021) · Methods in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.metip.2021.100052 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Political engagement and wellbeing among college students
Ballard, P. J., Ni, X., & Brocato, N. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101209 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Do High School Students With a Same-Race Teacher Attend Class More Often?
Gottfried, M. A., Kirksey, J. J., & Fletcher, T. L. (2021) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737211032241 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“As mentioned above, schools and teachers can contribute to a students’ sen semaking of this identity, which ultimately impacts students’ engagement with school and eventual school success (Datnow & Cooper, 1997; Rosenbloom & Way, 2004; Stevenson & Arrington, 2009).”
BackgroundBirds of an ethnic feather? Ethnic identity homophily among college‐age friends
Syed, M., & Juan, M. J. D. (2011) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.012 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Schwartz, S. J., Benet‐Martínez, V., Knight, G. P., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., Rosiers, S. E. D., Stephens, D. P., Huang, S., & Szapocznik, J. (2013) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0034717 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“…(Tajfel & Turner, 1986) holds that being attached to a cultural stream (the United States, one’s country of origin, or both) serves as a source of self-esteem and protects against internalizing symptoms (cf. A.-M. D. Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013; Smith & Silva, 2011; Yoon, Langrehr, & Ong, 2011).”
AKam, J., & Lazarevic, V. (2014) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2014.11679157 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Similarly, Smith and Silva (2011) found in their meta-analysis that ethnic identification was positively related to a sense of well-being (e.g., self-esteem), and the authors suggested that maintaining a strong ethnic identity means that individuals are aware of the valuable and desirable aspects…”
BackgroundPutting Identity into the Community: Exploring the Social Dynamics of Urban Regeneration
Heath, S. C., Rabinovich, A., & Barreto, M. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2296 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Holt, L. F., & Sweitzer, M. D. (2018) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2018.1524788 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Ethnic identity is more expansive, including customs, shared language, traditions, and pride in a group’s accomplishments (Hecht & Ribeau, 1991; Smith & Silva, 2011; Wong & Longshore, 2008).”
BackgroundLoyd, A. B., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., Zamboanga, B. L., Kim, S. Y., Weisskirch, R. S., Castillo, L. G., Whitbourne, S. K., Hurley, E. A., Huynh, Q., et al. (2013) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2013.773904 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Alamilla, S. G., Barney, B. J., Small, R., Wang, S. C., Schwartz, S. J., Donovan, R. A., & Lewis, C. (2019) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2018.1539945 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“has been shown to be protective against alcohol use among at-risk African American youth and Asian American adults,(31,32) in the same way that ethnic identity has been shown to play a positive role for ethnic minority mental health and well-being.(33) Similarly, collectivistic values are protective for recently arriv…”
BackgroundJuang, L. P., Moffitt, U., Kim, S. Y., Lee, R. M., Soto, J. A., Hurley, E. A., Weisskirch, R. S., Blozis, S. A., Castillo, L. G., Huynh, Q., et al. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.08.012 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, there are important similarities across ethnic groups in the United States (e.g., being of minority status) that translate into similar patterns, such as experiencing discrimination and the consistent links to poorer adjustment, regardless of ethnic group (Smith & Silva, 2011).”
BackgroundCultural identity and mental health: Differing trajectories among Asian and Latino youth.
Rogers‐Sirin, L., & Gupta, T. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029329 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
A threatened identity: The mental health status of Syrian refugees in Egypt and its etiology
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H., Rice, K., Al Ibraheem, B., & Aljakoub, J. (2017) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2017.1340163 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Empirical studies have focused on various violated collective identities—racial identity (e.g., Lee & Ahn, 2011), ethnic identity (e.g., Smith & Silva, 2011), Native American identity (e.g., Galliher, Jones, & Dahl, 2011), gender identity (e.g., Kira, Omidy, et al., 2015; Kira, Shuwiekh, &…”
BackgroundChoi, Y., Park, M., Noh, S., Lee, J. P., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2020) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100542 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Albarello, F., Crocetti, E., & Rubini, M. (2020) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01214-0 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Yoon, E., Cabirou, L. O., Galvin, S., Hill, L., Daskalova, P., Bhang, C. H., Mustaffa, E. A., Dao, A., Thomas, K., & Baltazar, B. (2020) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000019898583 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Overall, we attempted to minimize violation of statistical independence as well as include as much information as possible (Pieterse, Todd, Neville, & Carter, 2012; Smith & Silva, 2011).”
MethodOn the need to broaden the concept of ethnic identity
van de Vijver, F. J. R., Blommaert, J., Gkoumasi, G., & Stogianni, M. (2015) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.021 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
- Authors
- Smith, T. B., & Silva, L.
- Affiliations
- Brigham Young University (US)
- ORCID
- Smith, Timothy B.
- Venue
- Journal of Counseling Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 42-60
- ISSN
- 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2168
- OpenAlex
- W2132149499
- Cited by
- 779
- References
- 183
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 74.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- ethnic identity, personal well-being, people of color, self-esteem, positive well-being, personal distress, psychiatric symptoms, adolescents and young adults, age differences, race, gender, socioeconomic status
- MeSH terms
- Acculturation, Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Asian, Black or African American, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Male, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Quality of Life, Self Concept, Social Environment, Social Identification, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, Young Adult
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