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Cited by 1,503Polymer Science and PVCPhotopolymerization techniques and applicationsFree Radicals and Antioxidants

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Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially polystyrene: review

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Yousif, Emad, Haddad, Raghad·2013·SpringerPlus
DOI 10.1186/2193-1801-2-398PMC PMC4320144
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Abstract

Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation may cause the significant degradation of many materials. UV radiation causes photooxidative degradation which results in breaking of the polymer chains, produces free radical and reduces the molecular weight, causing deterioration of mechanical properties and leading to useless materials, after an unpredictable time. Polystyrene (PS), one of the most important material in the modern plastic industry, has been used all over the world, due to its excellent physical properties and low-cost. When polystyrene is subjected to UV irradiation in the presence of air, it undergoes a rapid yellowing and a gradual embrittlement. The mechanism of PS photolysis in the solid state (film) depends on the mobility of free radicals in the polymer matrix and their bimolecular recombination. Free hydrogen radicals diffuse very easily through the polymer matrix and combine in pairs or abstract hydrogen atoms from polymer molecule. Phenyl radical has limited mobility. They may abstract hydrogen from the near surrounding or combine with a polymer radical or with hydrogen radicals. Almost all synthetic polymers require stabilization against adverse environmental effects. It is necessary to find a means to reduce or prevent damage induced by environmental components such as heat, light or oxygen. The photostabilization of polymers may be achieved in many ways. The following stabilizing systems have been developed, which depend on the action of stabilizer: (1) light screeners, (2) UV absorbers, (3) excited-state quenchers, (4) peroxide decomposers, and (5) free radical scavengers; of these, it is generally believed that excited-state quenchers, peroxide decomposers, and free radical scavengers are the most effective. Research into degradation and ageing of polymers is extremely intensive and new materials are being synthesized with a pre-programmed lifetime. New stabilizers are becoming commercially available although their modes of action are sometimes not thoroughly elucidated. They target the many possible ways of polymer degradation: thermolysis, thermooxidation, photolysis, photooxidation, radiolysis etc. With the goal to increase lifetime of a particular polymeric material, two aspects of degradation are of particular importance: Storage conditions, and Addition of appropriate stabilizers. A profound knowledge of degradation mechanisms is needed to achieve the goal.

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Figures

Figure 1 General oxidation & photooxidation in polymers, (Rabek 1994 ).
Figure 1 General oxidation & photooxidation in polymers, (Rabek 1994 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight.
Figure 2 A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 The β scission in polymer molecule, Grassie and Scott ( 1985 ).
Figure 3 The β scission in polymer molecule, Grassie and Scott ( 1985 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Polymer photooxidation, Yousif ( 2012 ).
Figure 4 Polymer photooxidation, Yousif ( 2012 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Photooxidation cycle for polymers.
Figure 5 Photooxidation cycle for polymers.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Polymer film before and after exposure to UV light.
Figure 6 Polymer film before and after exposure to UV light.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 7 Synthesis of styrene.
Figure 7 Synthesis of styrene.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 8 Polymerization of styrene.
Figure 8 Polymerization of styrene.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 9 Types of polystyrene.
Figure 9 Types of polystyrene.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 10 World consumption of polystyrene–2010.
Figure 10 World consumption of polystyrene–2010.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 11 FTIR spectra of (a) pure polystyrene and after (b) 30 days and (c) 15 days of degradation, (Pushpadass et al. 2010 ).
Figure 11 FTIR spectra of (a) pure polystyrene and after (b) 30 days and (c) 15 days of degradation, (Pushpadass et al. 2010 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 12 Change in UV. Vis. spectram of polystyrene film after irradiation time, Shao et al. ( 2013 ).
Figure 12 Change in UV. Vis. spectram of polystyrene film after irradiation time, Shao et al. ( 2013 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 13 Formation of triplet state after absorption of light by benzene ring in PS.
Figure 13 Formation of triplet state after absorption of light by benzene ring in PS.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 14 Dissociation of C6H5-C bond.
Figure 14 Dissociation of C6H5-C bond.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 15 Formation of C-H and C-C bonds.
Figure 15 Formation of C-H and C-C bonds.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 16 Formation of cross-linking when two macroradical are near.
Figure 16 Formation of cross-linking when two macroradical are near.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 17 Macroradical disproportionate.
Figure 17 Macroradical disproportionate.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 18 Formation of Styrene monomer.
Figure 18 Formation of Styrene monomer.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 19 Built up of conjugated bond sequences in the polybachbone.
Figure 19 Built up of conjugated bond sequences in the polybachbone.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 20 Producing peroxy radical.
Figure 20 Producing peroxy radical.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 21 Polymer peroxy radical abstracted hydrogen.
Figure 21 Polymer peroxy radical abstracted hydrogen.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 22 Decomposition of hydroperoxide.
Figure 22 Decomposition of hydroperoxide.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 23 Formation of alkoxy polymer radicals.
Figure 23 Formation of alkoxy polymer radicals.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 24 General mechanism of photodegradation of polystyrene, Yousif et al. ( 2011a 2011b ).
Figure 24 General mechanism of photodegradation of polystyrene, Yousif et al. ( 2011a 2011b ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 25 Examples of UV absorbers.
Figure 25 Examples of UV absorbers.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 26 O- hydroxybenzophenone absorbed a photon.
Figure 26 O- hydroxybenzophenone absorbed a photon.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 27 Formation of Quinone.
Figure 27 Formation of Quinone.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 28 Formation of excited triplate state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.
Figure 28 Formation of excited triplate state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 29 Stable structure of excited triplate state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.
Figure 29 Stable structure of excited triplate state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 30 Formation of singlate excited state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.
Figure 30 Formation of singlate excited state of O- hydroxybenzophenone.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 31 The micro structure of carbon black particles, (Chirinos 1989 ).
Figure 31 The micro structure of carbon black particles, (Chirinos 1989 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 32 General processes for Quenchers.
Figure 32 General processes for Quenchers.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 33 Example of hydroperoxide decomposer.
Figure 33 Example of hydroperoxide decomposer.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 34 The general cycle for protecting a polymer against degradation by HALS, Willis ( 1984 ).
Figure 34 The general cycle for protecting a polymer against degradation by HALS, Willis ( 1984 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 35 The chemical structures of HALS, Bottino et al. ( 2004 ).
Figure 35 The chemical structures of HALS, Bottino et al. ( 2004 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 36 Theory of antioxidant.
Figure 36 Theory of antioxidant.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 37 Quinones retard oxidation process.
Figure 37 Quinones retard oxidation process.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 38 Light stabilize function.
Figure 38 Light stabilize function.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 39 Structure of 2-thioacitic acid benzothiazol complexes.
Figure 39 Structure of 2-thioacitic acid benzothiazol complexes.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 40 Suggested process for photostabilization by benzothiazole as UV absorber, Yousif et al. ( 2012 ).
Figure 40 Suggested process for photostabilization by benzothiazole as UV absorber, Yousif et al. ( 2012 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 41 Suggested process for photostabilization by benzothiazole complexes as peroxide decomposer, (Yousif et al. 2012 ).
Figure 41 Suggested process for photostabilization by benzothiazole complexes as peroxide decomposer, (Yousif et al. 2012 ).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 42 Suggested mode for photostabilization by carboxylate complexes as radical scavengers.
Figure 42 Suggested mode for photostabilization by carboxylate complexes as radical scavengers.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 43 Structures of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone and Tinuvin 327.
Figure 43 Structures of 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone and Tinuvin 327.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 44 Structure of hydroxyl phenyl pyrazole.
Figure 44 Structure of hydroxyl phenyl pyrazole.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 45 Structures of Tinuvin 1577 and hydroxyphenyltriazine.
Figure 45 Structures of Tinuvin 1577 and hydroxyphenyltriazine.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 46 Structures of uracil derivatives.
Figure 46 Structures of uracil derivatives.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 47 Structure of Cyabsorb UV 3529.
Figure 47 Structure of Cyabsorb UV 3529.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 48 Structure of anthraquinone derivatives.
Figure 48 Structure of anthraquinone derivatives.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 49 Structure of 2,3dihydro-(5-mercapto-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)-phenyl-2-(substituted)-oxazepine- 4,7-dione.
Figure 49 Structure of 2,3dihydro-(5-mercapto-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)-phenyl-2-(substituted)-oxazepine- 4,7-dione.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Citations

Cites

Show all 133 references

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Metadata

Authors
Yousif, E., & Haddad, R.
Affiliations
Nahrain University (IQ)
Corresponding author
Yousif, Emad
ORCID
Yousif, Emad
Venue
SpringerPlus
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2013-08-23
Volume
2
Issue
1
Pages
398-398
ISSN
2193-1801 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/2193-1801-2-398
PMC
PMC4320144
OpenAlex
W2122404351
Cited by
1,503
References
133
Citations by year
2026: 182 · 2025: 215 · 2024: 211 · 2023: 192 · 2022: 157 · 2021: 162 · 2020: 131 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 1
FWCI
1.54
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • SpringerPlus (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
Al-Nahrain University
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Polymer Science and PVC
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Photopolymerization techniques and applications
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Free Radicals and Antioxidants
Keywords
photodegradation, photostabilization, polystyrene, ultraviolet radiation, photooxidation, free radicals, yellowing, embrittlement, photolysis mechanism, polymer stabilizers, UV absorbers, radical scavengers, polymer aging, storage conditions

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