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Parental correlates in child and adolescent physical activity: a meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: Physical activity (PA) has a profound impact on health and development in children. Parental behaviors (i.e., modeling and support) represent an obvious important factor in child PA. The purpose of this paper was to provide a comprehensive meta-analysis that overcomes the limitations of prior narrative reviews and quantitative reviews with small samples. METHODS: Ten major databases were used in the literature search. One-hundred and fifteen studies passed the eligibility criteria. Both fixed and random effects models with correction for sampling and measurement error were examined in the analysis. Moderator analyses investigating the effects of child's developmental age, study design, parental gender, measurement of child PA, and quality rating were performed. RESULTS: Based on the random effects model, the results showed that parental modeling was weakly associated with child PA (summary r = .16, 95% CI .09-.24) and none of the proposed moderators were significant. Separate analyses examining the moderating effects of parental gender and boys' PA found that that father-son PA modeling (r = .29, 95% CI .21-.36) was significantly higher compared to mother-son PA (r = .19, 95% CI .14-.23; p < .05). However, parental gender did not moderate the relationship between parental modeling and girls' PA (p > .05). The random effects model indicated an overall moderate effect size for the parental support and child PA relationship (summary r = .38, 95% CI .30-.46). Here, the only significant moderating variable was the measurement of child PA (objective: r = .20, 95% CI .13-.26; reported: r = .46, 95% CI .37-.55; p < .01). CONCLUSIONS: Parental support and modeling relate to child PA, yet our results revealed a significant degree of heterogeneity among the studies that could not be explained well by our proposed moderators.
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“Encouragement and modelling by peers, friends and parents are factors that motivate children and adolescents to participate in physical activity or achieve recommended levels of physical activity.97–104”
From Physical activity and health in Chinese children and adolescents: expert consensus statement (2020) (2020) · cites this paper as [98]
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“The finding is consistent with the parental role-modeling of PA hypothesis which proposes that children adopt PA behaviors by observing their parents ’ actions and engaging in PA alongside them [39].”
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“This happens because positive words facilitate the perception of PA competence [66].”
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“Since adult LTPA also displays a socioeconomic gradient [8, 9], less socioeconomically advantaged children are likely to have less physically active parents who may in turn unfavourably influence their own children’s involvement in LTPA [71].”
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“Physical activity (PA) behaviors appear to be interdependent among children and their parents (Barkin et al., 2017; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
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“This improvement is thought to occur by fostering structured routines and shared goals, which enhance organization while promoting collaborative and enjoyable activities that strengthen family cohesion [7, 10].”
Self-citationPhillips, S. M., Bourke, M., Inniss, B., Ahluwalia, M., & Tucker, P. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0340687 · Cited by 3
“Consistent with social learning theories, parents may encourage PA in their children through parental modelling of PA behaviours [9], as well as through activity encouragement and support [10].”
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“…decreases with age, hence parent PA participation may be less important at this age compared with parenting behaviors that promote adolescent PA. 47 Additionally, due to insufficient power, we were unable to test effect modifi-cation; sex and age could be effect modifiers in the relationship…”
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“For example, research has indicated that changes to dietary and PA behaviors of parents can influence such behaviors in their children (Blaine, Kachurak, Davison, Klabunde, & Fisher, 2017; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
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“It has been well recognized that parent health behaviors, such as PA behavior, influence children’s health behaviors, by setting cultural attitudes and norms and by role-modeling.(21,35,36) The present study found that parent walking activity was positively associated with adolescent ACS.”
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“Focusing on physical activity, Yao and Rhodes (2015) meta-analysis found an overall moderate effect size for the association between parental support for physical activity and children ’ s physical activity (see also the review from Trost and Loprinzi 2011).”
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“Taking into account the positive relation between parental support and participant involvement in physical activities among teenagers [48], parents are suggested to enroll their children in sports clubs of their interests, co-participate in physical activities, and encourage their children to use…”
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“Studies highlighted the influencing effects of age on the relationship between parental physical activity and the support and encouragement provided to children, which positively affected their engagement in sports and overall physical activity (Jago et al., 2014; Yao and Rhodes, 2015).”
Lundh, H., Arvidsson, D., Greven, C., Fridolfsson, J., Börjesson, M., Boman, C., Lauruschkus, K., Lundqvist, S., Melin, K., & Bernhardsson, S. (2025) · Journal of Activity Sedentary and Sleep Behaviors · doi:10.1186/s44167-025-00072-0 · Cited by 3
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“This review left us with a lingering question: what has been done to support parents with more than one young child? Parental role modeling of PA has consistently been associated with young children’s PA [8,9,11], which implies that targeting these parents and including multiple children in these interventions may be…”
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“Overall, the evidence from three-generational family studies supports the role of family influences on PA/SB, similar to the conclusions from studies on parental influences (Rhodes et al., 2020; Yao & Rhodes, 2015), although the evidence base involving grandparents in particular is much smaller.”
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“Many studies on children without cancer have shown that parental support is positively correlated with children’s participation in and maintenance of PA 31,32 .”
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Autistic young adults’ experiences in physical activity: A phenomenological study
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“In childhood, parental support played a key role in facilitating PA participation, primarily through organized sports, consistent with studies emphasizing the importance of parental influence (Barry et al., 2024; Ku & Rhodes, 2020; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
González, O. D.-J., Fan, J., Marc, I., Jiang, H., Hulst, A. V., Tugault-Lafleur, C. N., Wu, Y., Hao, Y., Wang, L., Hu, X.-Y., et al. (2025) · MethodsX · doi:10.1016/j.mex.2025.103493 · Cited by 3
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Bringolf‐Isler, B., Hänggi, J., Kayser, B., Suggs, L. S., Dössegger, A., & Probst-Hensch, N. M. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-24527-w · Cited by 2
“Systematic reviews [10, 11] and meta-analyses [12] testing associations between parents and children PA support this theory, although the observed effects varied depending on the methodological approaches used.”
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“Furthermore, parenting style, parental role modelling and encouragement have also been reported to influence children’s attraction to PA (14).”
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“According to Yao and Rhodes (2015), parental support through encouragement is moderately associated with child and adolescent physical activity; furthermore, even though specific parent behaviours like praising, watching the child participate in physical activity, engaging in physical activity with…”
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la Torre‐Cruz, M. J. D., Ruiz‐Ariza, A., Ocaña-Expósito, S., & López, E. J. M. (2017) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy16-3.pohm · Cited by 1
Parental Impact on Child Physical Activity and Sedentary Time in Appalachian North Carolina
Farrell, A., Christiana, R. W., Battista, R. A., & James, J. J. (2020) · PubMed Central · doi:10.13023/jah.0203.05 · Cited by 1
“4,29 Thus, there may be a complicated relationship between parental beliefs and child physical activity and parents must take an active role in their child’s phys ical activity through supporting and motivating physical activity behavior.”
Oguntuase, S. B., Sun, Y., Apata, T. C., & Ogunsanya, J. O. (2021) · European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science · doi:10.46827/ejpe.v7i4.3985 · Cited by 1
Zorlu, S., & Alemdaroğlu-Gürbüz, İ. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02634-9 · Cited by 1
“…children ’ s physical activities, as well as being role models in physical activities and their participation in physical activities with children, affect their children ’ s behaviors towards PA which could be carried over to the post-adolescent period (Norton et al., 2003; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialGalán-Arroyo, C., Gómez-Paniagua, S., Castillo-Paredes, A., & Rojo-Ramos, J. (2024) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v55.103739 · Cited by 1
“Asimismo, los investigadores de la salud han reconocido ampliamente que la participación de actividad física regular está vinculada a varios beneficios para la salud y prevención de enfermedades crónicas (Yao y Rhodes, 2015).”
BackgroundJia, J., Ng, J. Y. Y., Wang, M. H., & Ha, A. S. C. (2024) · Leisure Sciences · doi:10.1080/01490400.2024.2383369 · Cited by 1
“Scholars have found the positive effect of parental modeling and support in improving children’s PA behavior (Ha et al., 2009; Trost & Loprinzi, 2011; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
Physical activity of children transitioning from kindegarten to primary school: A pilot study
Culková, D., & Dušková, V. (2024) · journal of physical education · doi:10.4025/jphyseduc.v35i1.3547 · Cited by 1
“Studies by Yao and Rhodes 26 and Pugliese and Tinsley 25 further confirm the importance of temperament and individual differences in PA levels.”
BackgroundPalmer, S. A., Scott-Andrews, K. Q., Ramirez, N. G., McKheen, A., & Robinson, L. E. (2024) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2024-0016 · Cited by 1
Cerrahoğlu, E., Ünver, B., & Ülkümen, İ. (2025) · Journal of Basic and Clinical Health Sciences · doi:10.30621/jbachs.1393097 · Cited by 2
Wilhite, B. C., Hennessy, E., Economos, C. D., Sacheck, J. M., Zive, R., Odalen, C., Herrick, S., & Hatfield, D. P. (2025) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/73510 · Cited by 1
“…identify priority PA parenting behaviors and the After reviewing 423 abstracts and 27 full-text papers, 3 categories of parental behaviors emerged as being supportive of children’s PA behavior change: modeling of PA, parental support of child PA, and parental encouragement for child PA [50,62-64].”
Gao, Y., Li, Y., Zhao, H., Wang, D., Sääkslahti, A., Aunola, K., Korhonen, E., & Laukkanen, A. (2025) · European Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s00431-025-06413-0 · Cited by 1
“Physical activity parenting (PAP), defined as specific behavioral strategies parents employ to foster active lifestyles in their children, has emerged as one of the few consistently identified correlates [7] and determinants of children’s PA levels [8].”
Pan, S., Lin, Y., Chen, Y., Cao, R., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2547366 · Cited by 1
“Comprehensive reviews provide evidence to support the positive influence of parental support, monitoring, and encouragement on children and adolescents’ PA level (Hutch-ens & Lee, 2018; Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
Paudel, S., Hesketh, K. R., Guagliano, J. M., Coombes, E. G., Brown, H. E., Jones, A., Hughes, C. H., Veitch, J., & van Sluijs, E. M. F. (2025) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2025-0049 · Cited by 3
Wang, X., & Jiang, Y. H. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332997 · Cited by 1
“A meta-analysis by Yao and Rhodes also confirmed that parental support and role modeling are strongly linked to children’s physical activity [75].”
Schwartz, A. E., Lewis, H., Gagliardi, L. J., Martin, S., Jaskiw, N., Jaskiw, N. J., & Hasson, R. E. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1559497 · Cited by 1
Watkins, J. M., Goss, J. M., Mehls, K. D., Dlugonski, D., & Downs, D. S. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13233127 · Cited by 1
“This inactivity heightens children’s risk for low activity levels, as maternal PA strongly predicts child PA through modeling and co-participation [17–19].”
Zhou, X., Zhang, X., Yang, Z., Ma, Y., Chen, Y., & Li, K. (2026) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-026-26327-2 · Cited by 1
“Family economic capital (FES) provides instrumental support for realizing this behavior [12, 36].”
Ocampo-Plazas, M. L., Alvarez, C. E., Williams, J., Kao, Y., & Tamplain, P. M. (2026) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2025-0072 · Cited by 1
Fundamental Motor Skills in 6- to 8-Year-Old Children: A School-Based Movement Skill Intervention
Africa, E. K., van Stryp, O., & Vermaak, C. (2026) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2024-0826 · Cited by 2
Suárez‐Reyes, M., Button, A. M., Beyl, R. A., Katzmarzyk, P. T., & Staiano, A. E. (2026) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2026.1709140 · Cited by 2
“A meta-analysis by Yao et al. (12) reported that parental support was positively associated with child PA, with a medium effect size highlighting its importance as a correlate of child PA (11, 12).”
Sözen, H. G., Tabak, S., & Sözen, H. (2026) · ODÜ Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi (ODÜSOBİAD) · doi:10.48146/odusobiad.1812649 · Cited by 1
Future Directions in the Science and Practice of Parental Monitoring
Pelham, W. E., Chitty, T. C., Dontha, M., Aks, I. R., Racz, S. J., Schulze, E. M., & Kemp, E. C. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2026.2640951 · Cited by 1
“…2009), criminal offending (Flanagan et al., 2019), alcohol use (Yap et al., 2017), cannabis use (Lac & Crano, 2009), cigarette smoking (Wellman et al., 2016), risky sex (Dittus et al., 2015), depression (Yap & Jorm, 2015), sleep (Khor et al., 2021), physical activity (Yao & Rhodes, 2015), academic”
Rodríguez-Rodríguez, F., Mota, J. A. P. S., Aguilar-Farías, N., & MArtins, C. M. M. (2026) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-026-06976-3 · Cited by 1
“This association is not merely defined by the presence of an active parent model [58], but rather by a sophisticated interplay of direct strategies, such as providing transportation and financial resources, and indirect strategies, including behavioural modelling and emotional encouragement [59].”
Screen time and physical activity in schoolchildren
Feu, S., García-Ceberino, J. M., la Cruz, M. L.-D., & López-Pérez, M. (2026) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2026.2682595
Murcia, J. A. M., Gea-Escámez, A., & Santamaría, M. C. (2018) · Hispana · Cited by 3
Lithopoulos, A., Dacin, P. A., Tremblay, M. S., & Latimer‐Cheung, A. E. (2021) · Journal of Social Marketing · doi:10.1108/jsocm-12-2019-0215 · Cited by 1
Stearns, J. A., Bélanger, M. F., O’Loughlin, J. L., & Brunet, J. (2022) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102170 · Cited by 1
Parent- and Family-Level Factors Associated with Childhood Obesity
Goran, M. I. (2016) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781315370958-16 · Cited by 1
Ho, R. S. T., Huang, Y., Lo, H.-Y., Liu, K. K., & Wong, S. H. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/10105395221103377 · Cited by 2
Internal versus External Predictors of Physical Activity in Youth
Ryan, P. M., & Kaskas, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02382-2 · Cited by 1
“However, as the child matures, the in fl uence of peers becomes more salient (Yao & Rhodes, 2015).”
BackgroundYalçın, U. Y. A. R. (2023) · Akademisyen Kitabevi eBooks · doi:10.37609/akya.2456 · Cited by 1
Rojo-Ramos, J., Castillo-Paredes, A., Mendoza-Muñoz, M., Adsuar, J. C., Polo-Campos, I., Gómez-Paniagua, S., & Galán-Arroyo, C. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20065093 · Cited by 1
“In general, there is no difference between parents’ satisfaction with PA and the gender of their children, as highlighted by another study, since this association is relative [57].”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Yao, C. A., & Rhodes, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Victoria (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Yao, Christopher A
- Venue
- International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity
- Published
- 2015-02-11
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 10-10
- ISSN
- 1479-5868 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4363182
- OpenAlex
- W2159936916
- Cited by
- 540
- References
- 151
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 7
- FWCI
- 4.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Children's Physical and Motor Development
- Keywords
- children's physical activity, adolescent physical activity, parental role modeling, parental support, parental gender
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Child, Child Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Motor Activity, Parents, Social Support, Health Behavior, Exercise, Parenting
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