The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Ausubel D. P., 1964, The Arithmetic Teacher, 11, 290
- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
- Clark R. E., 1998, Educational Technology, 38, 5
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 4,001–4,100 of 6,869
DeVoe, P. H. (2011) · UNM’s Digital Repository (University of New Mexico) · Cited by 3
Utilizing Technology as Leverage for Instructional Improvement in the Classroom.
Kellen, D. A. (2013) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 3
Vikberg, T. (2012) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 3
Using TeachLivE™ to improve pre-service special education teacher practices
Enicks, A. N. (2012) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 3
Using Q-methodology to Better Understand Student Learning Styles
Hall, R. T. (2014) · Asia Pacific Media Educator · doi:10.1177/1326365x14555282 · Cited by 3
“One problem of studentcentred learning has been that students are left on their own without appropriate scaffolding or support from instructors (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundTeaching the Spin Selection Rule: An Inductive Approach
Halstead, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed200795t · Cited by 3
Davis, D. R. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.01.013 · Cited by 3
Designing Tutorial Modalities and Strategies for Digital Games
White, M. M. (2012) · International Journal of Game-Based Learning · doi:10.4018/ijgbl.2012040102 · Cited by 3
“This relates to the body of experience (Kirschner et al., 2006) gamers have built around particular genres; often it is enough to refer to “role-playing game (RPG)”, “shooter”, or other genre convention in order to recall the relevant skills, expertise, and strategies long-term gamers have built…”
BackgroundHow the Ghosts of the Nineteenth Century Still Haunt Education
Scott, C. (2009) · Policy Futures in Education · doi:10.2304/pfie.2009.7.1.75 · Cited by 3
“Kirschner et al (2006) express some puzzlement as to why the package of educational ideas now referred to as constructivism keeps coming back into favour when the empirical evidence suggests that these do not work as guides to effective teaching practice with novice learners, particularly young…”
BackgroundInfluentialBeauty and blended learning: E-learning in vocational programs
Brown, M. C. (2008) · Cited by 3
Lower Secondary School Students' Attitudes Toward Computer-Supported Laboratory Exercises
Špernjak, A., Puhek, M., & Šorgo, A. (2010) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v5s2.1228 · Cited by 6
“Inquiry and problem based methods were recognized as more favorable than laboratory experiments performed in a “cook book” fashion [5], [6], [7], [8].”
MethodGenat, B., Naidu, S., & Fong, P. (2024) · Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) · doi:10.25916/sut.26294491 · Cited by 3
Wilson, J. I. (2012) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.4fea.1918 · Cited by 3
Collazo, N. A. J., Elen, J., & Clarebout, G. (2013) · Lirias · Cited by 3
Yılmaz, R. (2014) · Educational Research and Reviews · doi:10.5897/err2014.1829 · Cited by 3
“Besides, it is believed that asking students to discover without being guided is not only less effective but also has negative consequences such as finding out information that includes misconceptions and is unorganized and incomplete (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Schoppek, W. (2012) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000059 · Cited by 3
Holden, G. (2009) · Open Research Online (The Open University) · Cited by 3
Emergent Pathways for the Future of Instructional Design
Roubides, P. (2016) · International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design · doi:10.4018/ijopcd.2016010104 · Cited by 3
Mays, A. (2015) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.20856.14082 · Cited by 4
Ozyer, A., & Wilson, B. (2016) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1631 · Cited by 3
Theory of Cognitive Constructivism
Kasemsap, K. (2015) · Advances in knowledge acquisition, transfer, and management book series/Advances in knowledge acquisition, transfer and management book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8156-9.ch001 · Cited by 3
Jalani, N. H., & Sern, L. C. (2017) · The Asia Pacific Journal of Curriculum & Teaching · Cited by 3
Formative Evaluation of a Web-based Multimedia Intervention to Support Learning of Statistics
Koehler, N. A., Correia, A., Alpay, N., et al. (2017) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0006318500920099 · Cited by 3
Betts, P., McLarty, M., & Dickson, K. (2017) · Networks An Online Journal for Teacher Research · doi:10.4148/2470-6353.1011 · Cited by 3
Scenario based e-learning to improve problem solving skills
Rashid, U., & Ventura‐Medina, E. (2012) · Cited by 3
Mediengestützte Arbeits - und Lernprojekte als Instrument der betrieblichen Kompetenzentwicklung
Longmuß, J., Grantz, T., & Höhne, B. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54956-8_5 · Cited by 3
Androutsopoulos, K., Aristodemou, L., Boender, J., Bottone, M., Currie, E., El-Aroussi, I., Fields, B., Gheri, L., Gorogiannis, N., Heeney, M., et al. (2018) · doi:10.1145/3209087.3209106 · Cited by 3
Exploring Adaptive Strategies for Providing Learning Activities
Chen, X., Mitrović, A., & Mathews, M. (2018) · ACM Conference on User Modeling, Adaptation and Personalization (UMAP) · doi:10.1145/3209219.3209221 · Cited by 3
“WEs are more beneficial for novices [5], but PS was shown to be superior to WEs for advanced students who”
BackgroundAnderson, K. A., Burge, L., Shine, T. J., et al. (2018) · Journal of Computer Science Integration · doi:10.26716/jcsi.2018.01.1.2 · Cited by 3
“Research has shown that despite the popularity of minimally-guided instruction, strongly guided instruction is generally more effective than minimally-guided instruction (See Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006 for more information).”
BackgroundThe influence of scaffolded computerised science problem solving on motivational aspects
Fund, Z., & Madjar, N. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1528644 · Cited by 4
Russell, J. A., Helms, C., Everhart, R. C., et al. (2018) · Journal of Green Building · doi:10.3992/1943-4618.13.4.147 · Cited by 3
“Opponents refer to this aspect of PBL as providing minimal guidance during instruction (Kirschner et al, 2006).”
BackgroundSeeking To Improve Retention through Teaching Strategies and Peer Tutoring
Kishbaugh, T. L. S., Cessna, S., Hostetler, L. A., & Showalter, D. (2018) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2018-1301.ch007 · Cited by 3
The Impacts of Automatic Scaffolding on Students' Acquisition of Data Collection Inquiry Skills
Pedro, M. S., Gobert, J. D., & Baker, R. S. (2014) · Grantee Submission · Cited by 3
General Aviation Pilots Transition to Advanced Cockpit Technologies and Adult Learning
Kolmos, J. A. (2019) · Collegiate Aviation Review International · doi:10.22488/okstate.19.100208 · Cited by 3
Gavrilenko, G., Danilova, U., Artamonova, E. I., et al. (2019) · doi:10.1145/3345094.3345105 · Cited by 3
“We support the opinion of those researchers who contend the need to manage the activities of the student [13].”
BackgroundInvestigating Challenges and Preferred Instructional Strategies in STEM.
Cox, T. D., Ogle, B., & Campbell, L. O. (2019) · The Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability · Cited by 3
Rodríguez-Arteche, I., Martín, A. I. B., Novalbos, D. R., et al. (2019) · Ápice Revista de Educación Científica · doi:10.17979/arec.2019.3.2.4657 · Cited by 3
“En relación con lo segundo, se sigue percibiendo una cierta asociación de la indagación con el aprendizaje por «descubrimiento» (Kirschner et al., 2006), así como su identificación con una estrategia muy dirigida a los procedimientos científicos y no tanto al aprendizaje conceptual.”
BackgroundTHE TEACHER’S ROLE IN THE BATTLE OF THE INTELLIGENT MACHINES
Šorgo, A. (2020) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/20.19.04 · Cited by 3
Learning Analytics in Online Knowledge Building Discourse
Lee, A. V. Y., & Tan, S. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4980-9_9 · Cited by 3
Vision and Action: Two Sides of the Coin for Systemic Change in Educational Systems
Reigeluth, C. M., & Karnopp, J. R. (2020) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-020-00528-x · Cited by 6
“F. Instructional Support Just-in-Time during Projects Instructional support, sometimes called scaffolding, accelerates learning and helps all students reach their potential (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundStem, Inquiry Practices and Technology in Physics Education
Ellermeijer, T., & Tran, T.-B. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-52923-9_12 · Cited by 3
Libata, I. A., Ali, M. N., & Ismail, H. N. (2021) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2021.090216 · Cited by 4
“However, controversy has continued to emerge as to how best it is to teach students in this 21 century, more especially student on different cognitive architecture [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialDeveloping Preservice Teachers’ Expertise in Evaluating and Adapting Mathematics Lesson Plans
Morano, S., & Riccomini, P. J. (2021) · Journal of Special Education Preparation · doi:10.33043/josep.1.1.36-46 · Cited by 3
“Constructivist math instruction can be characterized as an approach in which students must discover or construct essential information for themselves, rather than being presented with essential information and provided with a high degree of instructional guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInnovative Inquiry-based Methods in Learning and Teaching Science
Bónus, L., & Antal, E. (2021) · Journal of Studies in Education · doi:10.5296/jse.v11i3.18700 · Cited by 7
“Unguided learning can also make students develop misconceptions and gain incomplete or disordered knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFirst Principles of Instruction Revisited
Merrill, M. (2021) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_56-1 · Cited by 3
The common coder’s scratch programming idioms and their impact on project remixing
Long, X., Techapalokul, P., & Tilevich, E. (2021) · doi:10.1145/3484272.3484959 · Cited by 3
“Some studies have indicated that certain aspects of the Scratch’s open-ended learning model might not be as effective for all learners as previously thought, and why models that employ more guided learning can be beneficial [22].”
BackgroundDifferences in Self-Directed Learning: Middle-School Students’ Autonomous Outdoor Studying
Uus, Õ., Mettis, K., Väljataga, T., & Ley, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.718295 · Cited by 4
“A contradiction has been found: while working memory is being used to search the sub-solutions, that is common in SDL, it is not used for good memorization (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundBeyond Experiential Learning Cycles
Meyer, J., & Seaman, J. (2021) · International explorations in outdoor and environmental education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-75980-3_7 · Cited by 5
A Cognitive Load Perspective to Instructional Design for Online Learning
Dönmez, O. (2021) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8701-0.ch019 · Cited by 4
Teaching Econometrics Dynamically with R-Shiny
Metzger, S. K. J. (2021) · PS Political Science & Politics · doi:10.1017/s1049096521001141 · Cited by 3
“For more on the dangers of minimal instructor guidance to students, see Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundAtividades investigativas como promotoras da argumentação no ensino de ciências
Tebaldi-Reis, L., Bevilacqua, G. D., Sineiro, S. C. A., & Coutinho‐Silva, R. (2022) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v11i1.25138 · Cited by 3
“Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialInquiry-based science education: Between teacher guidance and student autonomy in learning physics
Boilevin, J.-M. (2023) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0123773 · Cited by 3
Problem-Based Learning and Case-Based Learning
Zumbach, J., & Prescher, C. (2022) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_58-1 · Cited by 4
The New Zealand mathematics curriculum: A critical commentary
Morrow, N., Rata, E., & Evans, T. (2022) · STEM Education · doi:10.3934/steme.2022004 · Cited by 3
Fischer, C., Nguyen, H., Estrella, G., & Collins, P. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267188 · Cited by 7
“One the one hand, researchers argue that lectures can be more effective mode of delivering complex information without detriment to student learning and performance [9, 46, 47].”
BackgroundFrom “Customer” to “Partner”: Approaches to Conceptualization of Student-University Relationships
Maloshonok, N., & Щеглова, И. А. (2021) · University development and administration · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-3364-4_4-2 · Cited by 3
Use of Rubric and Assessment to Encourage Self-Regulated Learning
Habib, A., Abdullatif, M., & Alzayani, N. J. (2021) · IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference (ISEC) · doi:10.1109/isec52395.2021.9763942 · Cited by 3
Peters, M., Catasús, M. G., & Carbonell, M. R. (2022) · Journal of Interactive Media in Education · doi:10.5334/jime.752 · Cited by 6
Social Representations of Play: Piaget, Vygotskij and Beyond
van Oers, B. (2022) · Early childhood research and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05747-2_5 · Cited by 3
How Am I Doing in Small Group? Student Perceptions of Feedback in Case-Based Learning Sessions
Mowchun, J. J., & Davila, C. H. (2022) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-022-01677-9 · Cited by 3
Obaid, T., Nesbit, J. C., Ghaidary, A. M., Jain, M., & Hajian, S. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-022-09614-4 · Cited by 3
“Although many researchers have studied the effect of using simulations with guidance and without guidance (e.g., HmeloSilver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006), little attention has been paid to understanding how learners’ actions unfold sequentially as they engage in simulation-based discovery learning.”
BackgroundMaloshonok, N., Щеглова, И. А., & Жучкова, С. В. (2023) · Higher Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/hequ.12430 · Cited by 3
Park, S. (2023) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-023-00847-9 · Cited by 6
“…monitoring skills and motivation are crucial to learn and master the contents of computer-based learning environments (Aleven & Koedinger, 2000; Kirschner et al., 2006), variables regarding students' hint use are used to imply students' abilities to determine when they need to seek help as…”
MethodEye Movement Modeling Examples as a Teaching Tool for Epidural Block
Capogna, E., Scorzoni, M., Gonnella, G. L., et al. (2023) · Open Journal of Anesthesiology · doi:10.4236/ojanes.2023.134007 · Cited by 3
Sun, J. (2023) · Research and Advances in Education · doi:10.56397/rae.2023.04.06 · Cited by 7
de Smet, M. J. R., Brand‐Gruwel, S., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12825 · Cited by 5
Self-citationKinda, S. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12621 · Cited by 3
Preliminary investigation of a CFD-assisted virtual reality experience in engineering education
Solmaz, S., Kester, L., & Gerven, T. V. (2022) · doi:10.5821/conference-9788412322262.1317 · Cited by 3
Iglesias, J. D., Reinoso, R., & Bobo‐Pinilla, J. (2023) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-023-10377-8 · Cited by 8
“Mayer (2004) and Kirschner et al. (2006) strongly criticised inquiry-based and discovery-based learning.”
Mbiada, A. K., Isong, B., & Lugayizi, F. L. (2023) · Indonesian Journal of Computer Science · doi:10.33022/ijcs.v12i4.3330 · Cited by 3
“However, a vast body of literature in the field of CS education emphasizes that novices find programming particularly difficult, leading to high percentages of failure and dropout among them [1]–[3].”
Background:null (2023) · Waxmann Verlag GmbH eBooks · doi:10.31244/9783830997498 · Cited by 5
Costley, J., Gorbunova, A., Savelyev, A., Щеглова, И. А., & Lange, C. H. (2024) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2023.2301708 · Cited by 3
“There is a gap in extant research in regards to which sequence is more efficient for processing information and ultimately contributing to problem solving performance (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Formative Assessment Strategies by Monitoring Science Students’ Problem-Solving Skill Development
Pals, F. F. B., Tolboom, J., & Suhre, C. J. M. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Science Mathematics and Technology Education · doi:10.1007/s42330-023-00296-9 · Cited by 15
“According to Kirschner et al. (2006, p. 77): “Learning is defined as a change in long-term memory.””
Moelans, C. B., Geerling, J. J., Radersma, R. D., Moons, M. J., van Diest, P. J., & van der Schaaf, M. F. (2024) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.21810 · Cited by 6
“41,42 Also, a multitude of factors such as the use of multimedia, segmentation, hiding of non-important information, the degree of autonomy, the amount and quality of feedback and hints, and the availability of self-monitoring support can influence students' SRL strategies.”
BackgroundInquiring sustainability through dialogic Video Clubs in upper secondary schools
Hejl, C. D. K., & Qvortrup, A. (2024) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2024.2314044 · Cited by 3
“…a significant contribution to the unresolved question of whether teachers’ facilitation supports or prevents students’ participation and engagement (Decristan et al. 2015; Furtak et al. 2012; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Minner, levy, and Century 2010).”
Jing, J. H. F., Ishak, N. B., Arshad, A., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development · doi:10.6007/ijarped/v13-i1/20401 · Cited by 3
“However, it is important to note that engaging in collaborative learning tasks involves appropriate support and instruction, as highlighted by (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNghi, T. T., & Thắng, N. T. (2024) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.17507/jltr.1502.11 · Cited by 3
“This does not align with evidence-based language learning strategies, as noted by Kirschner et al. (2006) and van den Branden (2006).”
MethodDisentangling the Learning Gains from Reading a Book Chapter and Completing Proof Blocks Problems
Poulsen, S., Gertner, Y., Chen, H., Cosman, B., West, M., & Herman, G. L. (2024) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3626252.3630831 · Cited by 3
Faroji, A., Ma'mur, I., & Zohriah, A. (2023) · International Journal of Science Education and Cultural Studies · doi:10.58291/ijsecs.v3i1.215 · Cited by 3
'You don't go in their place': historical empathy in education
Perikleous, L. N. (2024) · Revista de Historia (Concepción) · doi:10.29393/rh31-3ydlp10003 · Cited by 3
How Mathematics in STEM Can Contribute to Responsible Citizenship Education in Schools
Anderson, J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-2728-5_14 · Cited by 3
Azzahrani, M. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.63055 · Cited by 3
Núñez‐Regueiro, F., Boissicat, N., Gimbert, F., Pobel-Burtin, C., Croset, M., Bosse, M., & Nurra, C. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09923-9 · Cited by 4
“…of cautious and evaluated for the possibility that they may contribute to exacerbating such Matthew effects (e.g., minimally guided instruction) or, on the contrary, to compensating them (e.g., response to intervention designs; Núñez-Regueiro, 2022; Kirschner et al., 2006; Slavin et al., 2011).”
Yoong, S. Q., Wang, W., Seah, A. C. W., Chao, F. F. T., Kumar, N., Gan, J. O. N., Schmidt, L. T., Hong, J., & Zhang, H. (2024) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2024.2391929 · Cited by 3
“Kirschner et al. (2006) contended that instructional strategies strongly emphasizing guided learning are more successful than minimally guided teaching (also known as experiential learning).”
The effect of OMO learning on high school students' problem-solving skills in physics
Gao, S., Zhang, L., Shangguan, F., & Yang, J. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101674 · Cited by 7
Modification of Erroneous and Correct Digital Texts
Csernoch, M., Hannusch, C., & Biró, P. (2024) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e26121015 · Cited by 4
Roth, C., Pitt, B., & Bender-Salazar, R. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-78453-8_19 · Cited by 4
Interpersonal Skills Training in Virtual Reality: Lessons for Event Management
Antchak, V., & Eckley, R. (2025) · Event Management · doi:10.3727/152599525x17418287223138 · Cited by 3
Lucena, L., Robeson, A., Falcão, C. J. L. M., dos Santos, L. P., Santana, A. C., & Hakamada, R. (2025) · Forest Policy and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2025.103476 · Cited by 3
Chen, C.-Y. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3732791 · Cited by 8
“The information provided in prompts should be sufficient to prevent novices from expending excessive cognitive capacity on understanding what they need to learn, allowing them to focus on the actual learning process [15].”
Dominke, H., & Steffensky, M. (2025) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70067 · Cited by 4
Saba, J., Kapur, M., & Roll, I. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09726-7 · Cited by 3
“One of the main difficulties in exploratory learning in general is students’ tendency to fail to discover the target knowledge (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Protocol for Language Arts Teaching Observation (PLATO) as a lens for assessing teaching quality
Klette, K., Luoto, J. M., Magnusson, C. G., et al. (2025) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243453.2025.2527728 · Cited by 3
“For example, the Representation of Content learning element occurs when the teacher delivers clear and connected content (Kirschner et al., 2006), while the Connections to Prior Knowledge element has support across both cognitive and constructivist perspectives, stressing the need for clear…”
PytlikZillig, L. M., & Tomkins, A. J. (2013) · Journal of Deliberative Democracy · doi:10.16997/jdd.170 · Cited by 4
“…of information and learning across situations (Keltner, Ellsworth, & Edwards, 1993; Pintrich, 2003), and demonstrate autonomous and active learning behaviors such as exploratory strategies and deep information processing (Hess, 2005; Keltner et al., 1993; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Mapping Social-Network Interactions
O’Brien, J., & Field, K. S. (2012) · Lecture notes in geoinformation and cartography · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27485-5_16 · Cited by 3
Eryilmaz, E., Thoms, B., Mary, J., et al. (2016) · Proceedings of the ... Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences/Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.1109/hicss.2016.266 · Cited by 3
“[34] C. E. Hmelo-Silver, R. G. Duncan, and C. A. Chinn, “Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)”, Educational Psychologist, 2007, 42(2), pp. 99-107.”
Ryba, H., & Pledger, T. (2016) · New Review of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1080/13614533.2016.1200105 · Cited by 3
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have found that active learning is only beneficial if it is supervised.”
BackgroundUsing Games to Learn Games: Game-Theory Representations as a Source for Guided Social Learning
Wagner, A. R. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47437-3_5 · Cited by 3
“Some psychologists argue that direct instruction represents the most effective way to teach and to learn [14].”
BackgroundSchuch, A. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41797-4_9 · Cited by 3
Teachers’ Implementation of Constructivist Teaching: Does Career Motivation Make a Difference?
Wang, P. (2016) · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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