The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
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- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
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Items 3,801–3,900 of 6,869
Complementary teaching approaches facilitating interdisciplinary soil science education
Brown, S., Fu, G., & White, L. W. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1139/cjss-2021-0096 · Cited by 4
“However, Kirschner et al. (2006) reviewed empirical research and argued that minimal guidance instruction is less effective than direct instruction for novice learners.”
BackgroundArticuler connaissances en psychologie cognitive et ingénierie pédagogique
Tricot, A. (2021) · Raisons éducatives · doi:10.3917/raised.025.0141 · Cited by 4
Weiszflog, M., & Goetz, I. K. (2021) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/ac3193 · Cited by 4
“Kirschner et al [8] attest minimally guided instruction forms a general lower effectiveness and efficiency than guided instruction, especially for learners with little prior knowledge.”
BackgroundMedpredmetno povezovanje: pot do uresničenja vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev
(2021) · Založba Univerze na Primorskem / University of Primorska Press eBooks · doi:10.26493/978-961-293-013-4 · Cited by 4
Ocasio, A., Waltzer, T., Caudy, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of Childhood Education & Society · doi:10.37291/2717638x.202123122 · Cited by 4
“In a typical preschool classroom, such order is unlikely to be present (e.g., Fisher et al., 2013; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMaaz, T. M., Nguyen, N., Valle-Echevarria, A. R. D., et al. (2022) · Natural sciences education · doi:10.1002/nse2.20076 · Cited by 4
Mewis, R. (2011) · New Directions in the Teaching of Physical Sciences · doi:10.11120/ndir.2011.00070036 · Cited by 4
Gamification for Astronaut Training
Cornelissen, F., Neerincx, M. A., Smets, N. J. J. M., et al. (2013) · American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics eBooks · doi:10.2514/5.9781624102080.0091.0110 · Cited by 4
Effective Knowledge Development in Game-Based Learning Environments
Adcock, A. B., Watson, G. S., Morrison, G. R., & Belfore, L. A. (2011) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60960-195-9.ch206 · Cited by 4
The Career Beliefs of Inner-City Adolescents
Turner, S. L., & Ziebell, J. L. C. (2011) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x1101500104 · Cited by 4
Lehtinen, A., Nieminen, P., Pehkonen, S., & Hähkiöniemi, M. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12060393 · Cited by 4
Visible Learning and synchronous online lesson in higher education: a study in engineering education
Bertozzi, G., Paciarotti, C., & Crivellini, A. (2022) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2022.2092721 · Cited by 4
“VL scaffolding substitutes lack of guidance since it is seen as a disadvantage and inconclusive freedom (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Mayer 2004; Sweller, Ayres, and Kalyuga 2011), where students (especially non-experts) are not able to build a coherent and structured knowledge.”
BackgroundWeekly Fluctuations in Motivation in Introductory Programming
Pesonen, H., & Hellas, A. (2022) · Conference on United Kingdom & Ireland Computing Education Research (UKICER) · doi:10.1145/3555009.3555012 · Cited by 5
“Broader educational psychology literature also suggests that having little guidance (or too much freedom) in instruction is less effective for learning, at least when compared to more direct and guided instruction [16].”
BackgroundProblem-Based Learning and Case-Based Learning
Zumbach, J., & Prescher, C. (2022) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_58 · Cited by 6
Contextualizing Introductory App Development Course for First-Year Engineering Students
Liang, Z. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering · doi:10.1109/tale54877.2022.00022 · Cited by 4
Guided Inquiry-Based Learning Practices
Şensoy, A., & Güneş, M. H. (2023) · Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education · doi:10.14686/buefad.795391 · Cited by 5
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Preparing Computer Science Education PhD Students: Our Process
Cunningham, K. I., Lewis, C. M., Herman, G. L., Zilles, C. B., & Alawini, A. (2023) · ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research (ICER) · doi:10.1145/3568812.3603472 · Cited by 4
“, [5, 8]) • Cognitive science, educational psychology, learning science (e.”
BackgroundSupporting TBLT through teacher education
East, M. (2023) · TASK Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1075/task.23004.eas · Cited by 5
Pitt, B., & Roth, C. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47655-6_21 · Cited by 4
Stott, A. E., & Duvenhage, M. (2023) · African Journal of Research in Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.1080/18117295.2023.2275857 · Cited by 4
“This is unlikely if they are new to the process (Savery, 2015) and virtually impossible if their skill and knowledge levels are low (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundElder, A. C. (2023) · Statistics Education Research Journal · doi:10.52041/serj.v22i3.436 · Cited by 4
Kurban, F. (2024) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/24.82.202 · Cited by 6
“Goal-free problems help students develop their flexible thinking skills (Maulidya et al., 2017; Purnama & Retnowati, 2020; Youssef-Shalala et al., 2014 guidance (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundHarerimana, E., Kamanzi, A., Tabaro, C., et al. (2024) · African Journal of Empirical Research · doi:10.51867/ajernet.5.2.43 · Cited by 4
The Profit Motive in the Classroom—Friend or Foe?
Elert, N., & Henrekson, M. (2024) · Journal of School Choice · doi:10.1080/15582159.2024.2358603 · Cited by 4
“According to the supplanted classical view, traditional subject delineations and fact-based learning are the best way to build the knowledge needed to solve problems, think critically, and develop one’s creativity (Kirschner et al., 2006; Tricot & Sweller, 2014; Willingham, 2010).”
Challenges implementing social constructivist learning approaches
Moskal, A., Loke, S., & Hung, N. (2016) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2016.805 · Cited by 4
“…that students would be able to engage in the pre-tutorial activity because they were third-year students for whom the topic was not totally new: Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) found that novice learners in constructivist environments often lacked necessary prior knowledge to integrate…”
BackgroundThompson, T. L., & Kanuka, H. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-296-1.ch008 · Cited by 4
Transiting into Inquiry Science Practice: Tales from a Primary School
Poon, C.-L., & Lim, S. S. L. (2014) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-4585-78-1_8 · Cited by 4
Tran, L. U., & King, H. (2009) · Journal of Museum Education · doi:10.1080/10598650.2009.11510630 · Cited by 4
Dedic, H., Rosenfield, S., & Ivanov, I. D. (2008) · Cited by 4
The Importance of Explicitly Mapping Instructional Analogies in Science Education
Asay, L. J. (2020) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/4478191 · Cited by 4
Multimedia Discrepancies - Plenary Lectures as Perceived by Students
Skaar, Ø. O., & Krumsvik, R. J. (2015) · Uniped · doi:10.18261/issn1893-8981-2015-01-05 · Cited by 5
Enhancement Algorithms for SQL-Based Chatbot
Lokman, A. S., & Zain, J. M. (2011) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22191-0_41 · Cited by 4
“This relation also supported the issue of the needs for direct instructional guidance rather than minimally-guided or unguided instruction that is less effective and efficient on human learning process [ 4 ].”
BackgroundThe Integration of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Project-Based Learning in a Blended Environment
Bullock, D. K. (2014) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6383-1.ch018 · Cited by 4
Virtual experimentation with Dose-Response simulator as a teaching tool in biology
Lazalde, A. R., Monreal, M. R., & Bonilla, M. E. P. (2016) · Apertura · doi:10.32870/ap.v8n2.855 · Cited by 4
Mastery goal orientation and cognitive ability effects on performance in learner‐guided training
Guarino, S. N., Whitaker, V. L., & Jundt, D. K. (2016) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12414 · Cited by 4
Embedded Systems: Teaching and Design Challenges for Nonhomogeneous Classes
Ridwan, I. I., Mohamed, I. I., Ali, R., & Elfadil, N. (2016) · International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering · doi:10.14257/ijmue.2016.11.10.22 · Cited by 4
Tricot, A., & Roussel, S. (2016) · Les dossiers des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.4000/dse.1380 · Cited by 4
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN A TEACHING AND LEARNING COURSE
Siahaan, M. F. (2017) · IJPTE International Journal of Pedagogy and Teacher Education · doi:10.20961/ijpte.v1i2.15078 · Cited by 4
Bevilacqua, C. R., & Kilian, C. K. (2017) · Domínios de Lingu gem · doi:10.14393/dl32-v11n5a2017-17 · Cited by 4
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Learning a complex dose–response relationship with the computer simulation CoaguSim
Al-Sallami, H. S., & Loke, S. (2018) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2018.07.009 · Cited by 4
How to Train Tomorrow's Corporate Trainers – Core Competences for Community Managers
Clauss, A. (2018) · International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET) · doi:10.1109/ithet.2018.8424806 · Cited by 4
“Therefore, it contributes substantially towards their success [11]–[13].”
BackgroundLeading Edge Learning in Network Science
Gera, R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77237-0_2 · Cited by 4
Training for peace, conscientization through university simulation
Gelot, L. (2019) · Journal of Peace Education · doi:10.1080/17400201.2019.1576514 · Cited by 4
“This supports the assessment of Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) regarding the limits of minimalguidance PBL.”
ResultA sala de aula invertida na Educação Física escolar
Belmont, R. S., Osborne, R., & Lemos, E. D. S. (2019) · Motrivivência · doi:10.5007/2175-8042.2019e57708 · Cited by 4
Wang, J., Sneed, S., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/112547 · Cited by 6
“(p. 516) Those myths correspond to the inaccurately over-simplified definition of inquiry teaching criticized by Kirschner et al. (2006), which are also common problems PSTs experience when they first implement inquiry teaching.”
BackgroundLu’luilmaknun, U., & Wutsqa, D. U. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1320/1/012087 · Cited by 4
Implementing Guided Inquiry in Biochemistry: Challenges and Opportunities
Loertscher, J. A., & Minderhout, V. (2019) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2019-1337.ch005 · Cited by 4
Competency-Based Digital Badges and Credentials: Cautions and Potential Solutions From the Field.
Hickey, D. T. (2016) · Singapore: International Society of the Learning Sciences eBooks · doi:10.22318/icls2016.70 · Cited by 4
Thoms, L., & Girwidz, R. (2016) · CNR SOLAR (Scientific Open-access Literature Archive and Repository) (University of Southampton) · doi:10.1393/ncc/i2015-15113-3 · Cited by 4
Learning Theory Through a Social Justice Lens
Parson, L. J., & Major, C. H. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44939-1_2 · Cited by 4
VALIDITAS STRATEGI SCAFFOLDING IMWR (INSPIRING-MODELING-WRITING-REPORTING) PADA PENDEKATAN SAINTIFIK
Wakhidah, N., Ibrahim, M., Agustini, R., et al. (2020) · Edukasi Jurnal Pendidikan · doi:10.31571/edukasi.v18i1.1714 · Cited by 4
Godino, J. D., & Burgos, M. (2020) · PARADIGMA · doi:10.37618/paradigma.1011-2251.2020.p80-106.id872 · Cited by 4
An integrated simulation-based early clinical exposure module in cardiovascular physiology
Dutt, R. A., Jain, R., & Bangera, S. (2020) · Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.25259/ijpp_105_2020 · Cited by 4
Eraković, B., & Lazović, V. (2020) · Inovacije u nastavi · doi:10.5937/inovacije2003043e · Cited by 4
Kogut, M., Thaning, M. S., & Birksted, N. (2020) · Management Learning · doi:10.1177/1350507620969549 · Cited by 4
“Our analysis of the importance of the question of intentionality also permits us to distinguish intellectual emancipation from various forms of contemporary progressivist pedagogies, present at the business school today (Kirschner et al., 2006: 82).”
BackgroundLangdon, A., & Pandor, J. (2020) · Language Value · doi:10.6035/languagev.2020.13.1 · Cited by 4
“However, SLA literature suggests that structured inquiry, or a strongly guided approach to teaching and learning in the TL, can support learners during the acquisition of new knowledge (Caputo, 2014; Killen, 2012; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundCreativity, visualisation, collaboration and communication
Finger, G. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.011 · Cited by 4
Learning lab "digital technologies" keeps distance
Günzel, H., Brehm, L., & Humpe, A. (2020) · doi:10.1145/3442481.3442506 · Cited by 4
“Students should have the best opportunity to build knowledge with specific objectives and limited information [18][29].”
BackgroundDetails Matter: How Contrasting Design Features in Two MUVEs Impact Learning Outcomes
Gonzalez, E. A., Grotzer, T. A., McGivney, E., et al. (2021) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-021-09513-6 · Cited by 4
“Some research suggests that motivation is higher in openly structured activities (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007) and that greater content learning is found in more tightly structured activities (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundDam, M., & Janssen, F. J. J. M. (2021) · Professional Development in Education · doi:10.1080/19415257.2021.1972435 · Cited by 4
“…student guidance when using authentic whole tasks should be tailored to what students need so that the full range of students can learn effectively whereby both unguided discovery learning and fully guided discovery learning are mostly ineffective (Hmelo, Duncan and Chinn, 2007; Kirschner et al .”
Early Prediction of Conceptual Understanding in Interactive Simulations
Cock, J. M., Marras, M., Giang, C., et al. (2021) · Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) · Cited by 4
Cooperative problem-based learning experience and coaching strategies of engineering course
Alaloul, W. S., & Qureshi, A. H. (2022) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v11i2.22243 · Cited by 4
De Visiones Erróneas de la Ciencia a Opciones Epistemológicas-didácticas que Intentan Resignificarla
Olivo-Franco, J. L. (2022) · Cuestiones pedagógicas: Revista de ciencias de la educación · doi:10.12795/cp.2022.i31.v1.08 · Cited by 4
Designing mathematics standards in agreement with science
Hartman, J. R., Hart, S., Nelson, E. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2023) · International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education · doi:10.29333/iejme/13179 · Cited by 9
“Kirschner et al. (2006) summarize that for facts and procedures that have not previously been well-memorized, WM is “ very limited in duration and in capacity, ” but “ when dealing with previously learned information stored in long-term memory, these limitations disappear ” (p. 77).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffects of Concurrent Performance Monitoring on Cognitive Load as a Function of Task Complexity
PAAS, F. G. W. C., & van Gog, T. (2009) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4
Urbansim: A Game-Based Instructional Package for Conducting Counterinsurgency Operations
McAlinden, R., Durlach, P. J., Lane, H. C., Gordon, A. S., & Hart, J. (2008) · Cited by 4
Case-based reasoning approach to adaptive modelling in exploratory learning
Haig, E., Guti'errez-Santos, S., & Magoulas, G. D. (2012) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23190-2_12 · Cited by 5
“When provided with guidance and support ELEs have a positive impact on learning compared with other more structured environments [3]; however, the lack of support may actually hinder learning [4].”
BackgroundGames for Participatory Science: A Paradigm for Game-Based Learning for Promoting Science Literacy.
Shapiro, R. B., & Squire, K. D. (2011) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 4
The Convergence of Mayer’s Model and Constructivist Model towards Problem solving in Physics
Bautista, R. G. (2012) · Cited by 4
Using Online Learning Networks to Promote Self-Regulated Learning in Primary Teacher Education
Vrieling, E., Bastiaens, T. J., & Stijnen, S. (2012) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 4
Combining intelligent methods for learner modelling in exploratory learning environments
Cocea, M., & Magoulas, G. D. (2008) · Cited by 4
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McClaran, R. R. (2013) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · Cited by 4
Integrating Research Skills Training into Non-Research Methods Courses.
Woolf, J. (2014) · Collected Essays on Learning and Teaching · doi:10.22329/celt.v7i1.3969 · Cited by 4
Drawing the boundary lines of science education
Hällström, J. (2015) · History of Education Review · doi:10.1108/her-02-2014-0008 · Cited by 4
Developing an intermediate embedded-systems course with an emphasis on collaboration
Djordjalian, A., Lutenberg, A., Cruz, J., Garcia, S., Martos, P. I. D., & Gomez, P. (2011) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2011.6142985 · Cited by 4
“…Electronics Engineering curriculum of the University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Argentina, has been covering embedded-systems design through a required course, called Laboratorio de Microcomputadoras [1], that introduces microcontrollers, which are typically the central components of embedded systems.”
BackgroundThe Impact of a Modified Moore Method on Efficacy and Performance in Precalculus
Cooper, T. E., Bailey, B., & Briggs, K. (2012) · PRIMUS · doi:10.1080/10511970.2011.599242 · Cited by 4
“[11] assert that providing students with little or no direct guidance places such a large burden on their working memories that there is no room left for accumulating knowledge in their long-term memories, and therefore, “minimally guided instruction is likely to be ineffective [11, p.”
BackgroundLearning through interaction: Improving practice with design‐based research
Voigt, C., & Swatman, P. M. C. (2006) · Interactive Technology and Smart Education · doi:10.1108/17415650680000065 · Cited by 4
Constructive scaffolding for accessible PBL: Situated meta-critique in the classroom
Davison, B. M., & McEwan, T. (2012) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2012.6462395 · Cited by 4
“Proponents of PBL on the other hand argue that scaffolding provided by a tutor is required for successful PBL [26] and that effective pedagogical design centers on the choice and application of appropriate scaffolding for the subject domain.”
BackgroundIntelligent Support for Exploratory Environments: Where are We and Where Do We Want to Go?
Gutiérrez-Santos, S., & Mavrikis, M. (2008) · Cited by 4
Wagner, K., Stark, R., Daudbasic, J., Klein, M., Krause, U.-M., & Herzmann, P. (2013) · Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) · doi:10.25656/01:8022 · Cited by 9
The pedagogical requirements of patient E-health education to increase health literacy
Butterworth, K., Allam, O., & Gray, A. W. (2010) · Proceedings - IEEE Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems · doi:10.1109/cbms.2010.6042632 · Cited by 4
“This is problematic as constructivist learning is excellent for people who are already highly skilled in a subject area, but very poor for those beginner and intermediate learners who need training in learning skills and domain understanding to be able to effectively access the constructivist learning [ 20 , 21].”
BackgroundZhilin, D. M., & Tkachuk, L. E. (2013) · International Journal of Physics & Chemistry Education · doi:10.51724/ijpce.v5i1.73 · Cited by 5
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Effectiveness of a programme design for the development of competence in solving clinical problems
Ramaekers, S. P. J., van Keulen, H., van Beukelen, P., Kremer, W. D. J., & Pilot, A. (2012) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2012.668236 · Cited by 5
“well as debated (Kirschner et al. 2006), alternative designs to”
Cawley, O., Weibelzahl, S., Richardson, I., & Delaney, Y. (2014) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5800-4.ch018 · Cited by 4
An ontology for integrating didactics into a serious training game
Peeters, M. M. M., den Bosch, K. V., Meijer, J. J. C., & Neerincx, M. A. (2012) · TNO Repository · Cited by 4
The Simulated Acculturation Model in the FOUNTAINS-Game
Männamaa, I., & Leijen, Ä. (2015) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878115591393 · Cited by 4
Educational Drama: A Model used in a Business School
de Villiers, R., & Botes, V. (2014) · e-journal of business education & scholarship of teaching · Cited by 4
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Qual e il senso delle tecnologie nella scuola? Una “road map” per decisori ed educatori.
Calvani, A. (2013) · Italian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.17471/2499-4324/123 · Cited by 4
Situierte Gesundheitsförderung
Pieter, A., Emrich, E., & Stark, R. (2009) · Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung · doi:10.1007/s11553-009-0196-7 · Cited by 4
Kozulin, A. (2010) · Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology · doi:10.1891/1945-8959.9.3.273 · Cited by 4
Building Sustainable R&D Centers in Emerging Technology Regions
Grzegorczyk, M., & Trzmielak, D. (2015) · Masarykova univerzita eBooks · doi:10.5817/cz.muni.p210-7855-2015 · Cited by 6
Rethinking Educational Spaces in School Design
Malinin, L. H. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-38999-8_6 · Cited by 4
Didactics of Chemistry as a Science: History in Russia
Teleshov, S., & Zhilin, D. M. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0847-4_20 · Cited by 4
“Much later, similar arguments against the constructivist approach were independently repeated in Western literature (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundBubb, T. E., McDonald, D. M., & Crawford, C. M. (2011) · Advances in game-based learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-61350-441-3.ch013 · Cited by 4
Arntzen, J., & Krug, D. H. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61692-854-4.ch019 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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