The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
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DEWEY, J. M. (1986) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131728609335764 · Cited by 13,872
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Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Ausubel D. P., 1964, The Arithmetic Teacher, 11, 290
- Bernstein, D. A., Penner, L. A., Clarke-Stewart, A., Roy, E. J. & Wickens, C. D. (2003). Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
- Clark R. E., 1998, Educational Technology, 38, 5
- Estes F., 1999, Educational Technology, 37, 5
- Glaser, R. (1987). Further notes toward a psychology of instruction. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Kolb, D. A. & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33-57). New York: Wiley.
- Roblyer M. D., 1996, Learning and Leading With Technology, 24, 12
- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 3,701–3,800 of 6,869
Mende, S., Proske, A., & Narciss, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1335682 · Cited by 5
Liu, P.-L., Chen, C.-J., & Chen, H. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241288924 · Cited by 19
“Learning, according to many experts, happens when people are encouraged to engage in effective learning activities (de Jong, 2005; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Liu & Chen, 2015; Mayer, 2003, 2004).”
AF-Mix: A gaze-aware learning system with attention feedback in mixed reality
Liu, S., Toreini, P., & Maedche, A. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2025.103467 · Cited by 5
Schneider, J., Limbu, B. H., & Kiesler, N. (2025) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-025-09450-8 · Cited by 8
Mulholland, K., Gray, W. S., Counihan, C., & Nichol, D. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15070892 · Cited by 8
Don, H. J., Kim, L. E., & Double, K. S. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2025.102719 · Cited by 4
Speclad: An Online Collaborative Problem-Based Learning Environment
Jayasundara, C., Balbo, S., Farmer, R., et al. (2007) · Cited by 4
A Student-Centered Effective Learning Framework For Quality Education
Jawad, S., & Wahab, F. E. (2014) · VFAST Transactions on Education and Social Sciences · doi:10.21015/vtess.v3i1.87 · Cited by 4
“Active learning techniques include discovery learning, experiential learning and inquiry-based instruction [9].”
BackgroundInquiry-Based Learning for Interprofessional Education
Hannah, E. F. S., Ingram, R. D., Kerr, C., et al. (2014) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120140000002016 · Cited by 4
Portman, D., & Broido, M. (2019) · Language Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1515/cercles-2019-0021 · Cited by 4
“Without such guided support, students often “become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions” (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundJambunathan, S., Jayaraman, J. D., Jayaraman, A., et al. (2020) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004279.2020.1733041 · Cited by 4
“…cons of using only discovery based learning versus supplementing it with minimal explicit instruction, modelling or using direct instruction methods (e.g. Bruner 1961; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004; Sweller, Kirschner, and Clark 2007; Tobias and Duffy 2009).”
MethodTHE EFFECTS OF INDEXING PROMPTS ON PROBLEM-SOLVING IN CASE LIBRARY LEARNING
Park, J., Lee, J., & Kim, D. (2020) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/20.78.394 · Cited by 4
Calandra, B. D., Renken, M. D., Cohen, J. D., Hicks, T. A., & Ketenci, T. (2020) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-020-00557-6 · Cited by 4
Integrating Evidence-based Learning in Engineering and Computer Science Gateway Courses
Zhao, X., Chowdhury, S., & Chowdhury, T. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--34842 · Cited by 4
“However, the challenges do exist for the academically under-prepared student groups or when lack of appropriate tutor resources [16][17] .”
BackgroundInquiry-Based Learning in Psychology
Lippmann, M. (2021) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_59-1 · Cited by 8
A conceptual framework for integrating mathematics and science in the secondary classroom
Treacy, P. (2021) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-021-00166-x · Cited by 5
Implicit bias, disproportionate discipline, and teacher responsibility for instruction as prevention
Scott, T. M. (2021) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2021.1937021 · Cited by 8
“Three key strategies that cut across instruction and management are: active supervision with explicit instruction (Haydon & Kroeger, 2016; Kirschner et al., 2006), provision of opportunities to for student responding during instruction (Partin et al., 2009), and the delivery of positive feedback…”
BackgroundHovardas, T., Zacharia, Z. C., Xenofontos, N. A., & de Jong, T. (2022) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-022-09580-x · Cited by 5
“The concern of the proper level of structure resembles the discussion of the optimal guidance vs. openness in inquiry-based learning environments (e.g., Arnold et al., 2014; Koksal & Berberoglou, 2014; see also Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundAmir, N., & Subramaniam, R. (2014) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6375-6.ch007 · Cited by 4
Teachers’ Ontology-based Reasoning for Assessment in Student-centered Learning Environments
Bergner, Y., & Chen, O. (2022) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2022.2134577 · Cited by 4
“Debates about the merits of these open-ended learning environments (see, e.g., Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006) often hinge on the value ascribed to developing soft skills, such as collaboration, agency, and resilience, in addition to content knowledge.”
BackgroundBiotechnologie praxisorientiert unterrichten
Schöppner, P., Großbruchhaus, S., & Nerdel, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-65210-7 · Cited by 4
Exploring Inquiry Skills During Home Experiments about Science in the Online Instruction
Supeno, S., Ridlo, Z. R., & Setiawan, A. M. (2022) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2392/1/012019 · Cited by 4
Student Collaboration Through Assessment, Feedback and Peer Instruction
Chang-Tik, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-4383-6_3 · Cited by 5
The effectiveness of flipped classroom in the hospitality education
Ермолаева, П. О., & Barron, P. (2022) · Training Language and Culture · doi:10.22363/2521-442x-2022-6-4-31-49 · Cited by 4
Learning Support System That Encourages Self-Directed Knowledge Discovery
MATSUDA, K., Seta, K., & HAYASHI, Y. (2023) · IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems · doi:10.1587/transinf.2022etp0002 · Cited by 4
Martin, A. J. (2019) · Psychology of Education Review · doi:10.53841/bpsper.2019.43.1.23 · Cited by 4
Elstad, E. (2023) · Evaluating education: Normative systems and institutional practices · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-26051-3_3 · Cited by 4
Krause-Wichmann, T., Greisel, M., Wekerle, C., Kollar, I., & Stark, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1001523 · Cited by 7
“Despite the widespread use of case-based approaches, simply exposing pre-service teachers to complex problems from educational practice without further instructional guidance may not be sufficient to foster the development of an EIRS: Complex problems, such as classroom situations, place high demands on cognitive and…”
BackgroundKienzler, J., Voss, T., & Wittwer, J. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09627-7 · Cited by 11
Topolovčan, T. (2023) · Školski vjesnik : časopis za pedagogijsku teoriju i praksu · doi:10.38003/sv.72.1.9 · Cited by 4
Adler, I., & Sarsour, L. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09649-1 · Cited by 7
“…are able to successfully overcome the numerous challenges posed inquiry-based learning, leading inquiry to be even more effective than other more expository instructional approaches (Belland et al., 2013; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2010; Kuhn et al., 2000; Minner et al., 2010).”
Aligning Learner-Centered Design Philosophy, Theory, Research, and Practice
Zintgraff, C., & Hirumi, A. “. C. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_119 · Cited by 4
Bächtold, M., Cross, D., & Munier, V. (2024) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2024.2303623 · Cited by 4
“However, in taking responsibility for scienti fi c activities, students face the problem of cognitive load (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Hınız, G., & Yavuz, A. (2024) · Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/21532974.2024.2325972 · Cited by 11
“Despite Kirschner et al. (2006) contention that minimal guidance approaches like inquiry-based learning lack robust empirical evidence, Dana et al. (2017) argue that the process of inquiry promotes professional growth by encouraging educators to pose questions, engage in reflective dialogue, and…”
BackgroundFong, C. J., Schallert, D. L., Lin, S., & Altan, S. (2024) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101351 · Cited by 4
Banerjee, T., & Gautam, M. K. (2024) · EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR) · doi:10.36713/epra16279 · Cited by 10
Teaching about Marginalized Groups Using a Digital Human Library: Lessons Learned
Chan, C. (2024) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci13060308 · Cited by 4
Romeike, B. F. M., Lang, J., Stosch, C., Moritz, S., Behrends, M., Lemos, M., Mink, J., & Tolks, D. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0309103 · Cited by 4
Soydan, S., Mutlu, K., & Akış, G. (2024) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2024.2393700 · Cited by 4
“Self-guided exploration without adequate guidance is ineffective (Alfieri et al. 2011; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), and it has been found that parents who are less directive and instead ask more questions and involve their children in problem-solving discussions enhance the development of…”
Girls persist more but divest less from ineffective teaching than boys.
Radovanovic, M., Yucer, E., & Sommerville, J. A. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001646 · Cited by 7
DeCaro, M. S., Bego, C. R., Velić, L., & Newman, P. M. (2024) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-024-09696-2 · Cited by 5
“Many prior exploratory learning studies also lack control conditions that are matched exactly on the activity and instruction given between explore-instruct and traditional instruct-then-practice conditions (Hsu et al., 2015; Kirschner et al., 2006; Schwartz et al., 2011; Sweller, 2009).”
InfluentialPreferred Teaching Delivery Methods for Generation Z
Gochenouer, D., Rickgarn, H., & Huang, L. (2025) · Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice · doi:10.33423/jhetp.v24i12.7467 · Cited by 4
“Cognitive load theory builds on the foundation of prior learner knowledge, learner outcomes, and the setting that facilitates the learner (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
Yan, J., & Ma, Q. (2025) · Journal of China Computer-Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1515/jccall-2024-0016 · Cited by 4
“Hence, integrating socio-cultural theory into constructivist learning approaches is recommended (Brown and Palincsar 1989; Kirschner et al. 2006; Palincsar 1998).”
Li, W. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15020207 · Cited by 5
教育智能广告的算法殖民与价值重构：技术赋能下的教学异化及伦理治理研究
张晓曼, 林可一, 郭文君, et al. (2025) · 人文与社会科学学刊 · doi:10.70693/rwsk.v1i3.696 · Cited by 4
EXAMPLES AND TUTORED PROBLEMS: IS ALTERNATING EXAMPLES AND PROBLEMS THE BEST INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY?
Najar, A. S., & Mitrović, A. (2022) · Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.58459/rptel.2014.9439-459 · Cited by 4
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) show that maximum assistance (e.g. examples) is more efficient than minimal assistance which has been corroborated by prior studies (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000).”
Scientific INQuiry (SINQ): Social media for everyday science learning
Gubbels, M., Yip, J. C., Kim, R. J., & Ahn, J. (2013) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · doi:10.9776/13528 · Cited by 4
“Technology for promoting scientific practice and personal meaning in life-relevant learning.”
BackgroundConstructionism and Deconstructionism
Boytchev, P. (2015) · Constructivist Foundations · Cited by 4
Individualized Cultural and Social Skills Learning with Virtual Humans
Lane, H. C., & Wray, R. E. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139049580.015 · Cited by 4
Learning the core ideas of scanning probe microscopy by toy model inquiries
Lindell, A., & Kähkönen, A.-L. (2013) · Nanotechnology Reviews · doi:10.1515/ntrev-2012-0052 · Cited by 4
Exploring Applications for Using Video Podcasts in Online Learning
Kay, R. H. (2014) · International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design · doi:10.4018/ijopcd.2014040105 · Cited by 4
Chilton, M. A., & Gurung, A. (2008) · International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies · doi:10.4018/jwltt.2008040103 · Cited by 4
A Semester-Long Joint Simulation of the Development of a Health Communication Campaign
Miller, A. N., & McCain, J. (2012) · Communication Teacher · doi:10.1080/17404622.2011.643807 · Cited by 4
Experience with Using Multiple Types of Visual Educational Tools during Problem-Based Learning
Kang, B. J. (2012) · Korean journal of medical education · doi:10.3946/kjme.2012.24.2.127 · Cited by 4
“따라서 어느 정도 학습 내용에 대한 잘 조직화된 지지(scaffolding) 가 제공될 필요가 있다[2].”
Adcock, A. B., Duggan, M. H., & Perry, T. L. (2010) · Educational Media International · doi:10.1080/09523987.2010.535330 · Cited by 4
“…from both an interface and cognitive standpoint (Alessi, 1988; de Jong & Van Joolingen, 1998; Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992; Thurman, 1993) but sometimes more structured practice is needed to supplement the open-ended nature of simulations (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundHe, Q., Valcke, M., & Zhu, C. (2011) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.02.019 · Cited by 4
Improving undergraduates' engineering abilities with Chinese situation
Huang, J., & Chen, G. (2012) · International Conference on Computer Science & Education (ICCSE) · doi:10.1109/iccse.2012.6295350 · Cited by 4
What is “Real-World” ID Anyway?
Hardré, P. L. (2013) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-012-0628-7 · Cited by 4
Hsiao, C.-H., Wu, Y., Lin, C.-Y., Wong, T. W., Fu, H., Yeh, T., & Chang, C. (2014) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-014-9165-y · Cited by 4
“A number of studies have shown that students do not always embrace the full student-centred approaches that are promoted by educators (Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Vernon and Blake 1993).”
BackgroundUsing State Transition Networks to Analyze Multi-party Conversations in a Serious Game
Morgan, B., Keshtkar, F., Duan, Y., et al. (2012) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30950-2_21 · Cited by 4
“A substantial body of research suggests that mentoring is needed in order to facilitate learning tools, such as reflection, elaboration, scaffolding, modeling, and so forth [7, 8, 9].”
BackgroundInman, T. F. (2011) · TopSCHOLAR (Western Kentucky University) · Cited by 4
The effects of mastery learning correctives on academic achievement and student affect
DeWeese, S. V. (2012) · Mercer University Libraries (Mercer University) · Cited by 4
Sekerka, L. E., & Yacobian, M. M. (2016) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2016.03.003 · Cited by 4
Using Digital Mapping Tool in Ill-structured Problem Solving
Bai, H. (2013) · International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2013.070211 · Cited by 4
Inventing Prepares Learning Motivationally, but a Worked-out Solution Enhances Learning Outcomes
Glogger‐Frey, I., Kappich, J., Schwonke, R., et al. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4
Noponen, M. (2016) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 3
Jabar, S. I. (2016) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v20i2.784 · Cited by 5
Blessinger, P., & Carfora, J. M. (2015) · Innovations in higher education teaching and learning · doi:10.1108/s2055-364120150000004001 · Cited by 4
Precursor skills to writing code
Zavala, L., & Mendoza, B. (2017) · Journal of computing sciences in colleges · Cited by 4
Por que o construtivismo não funciona? Evolução, processamento de informação e aprendizagem escolar
Haase, V. G., Júlio-Costa, A., & Lopes-Silva, J. B. (2015) · Revista Psicologia em Pesquisa · doi:10.5327/z1982-1247201500010008 · Cited by 4
Use of Supplementary Online Lecture Materials in a Heat Transfer Course
Lemley, E. C., & Jassemnejad, B. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--22169 · Cited by 4
김희주, 박지윤, & Kang, Y.-S. (2015) · Disability & Employment · doi:10.15707/disem.2015.25.1.003 · Cited by 4
Confidence drives exploration strategies in interactive simulations
Arguel, A., Lodge, J. M., Pachman, M., & Barba, P. D. (2016) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2016.825 · Cited by 5
“Discovery-based learning environments have been criticised due to a lack of direct instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
BackgroundUsing a Recommendation System to Support Problem Solving and Case-Based Reasoning Retrieval
Tawfik, A. A., Alhoori, H., Keene, C. W., Bailey, C., & Hogan, M. (2017) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-017-9335-y · Cited by 4
“Given that previous experience is of foundational importance to reasoning, theorists have argued that a lack of experience poses problems to novices in problem solving settings (Kirschner et al. 2006; van Merrie¨nboer 2013).”
BackgroundTeacher Candidates’ Understandings and Progress of Constructivism in Science Teaching
Baysen, F., & Baysen, E. (2017) · International Journal of Educational Sciences · doi:10.1080/09751122.2017.1397436 · Cited by 4
“Criticisms have also been towards constructivism, claiming the effectiveness of the direct instruction as opposed to constructivist strategies (Kirschner et al. 2006; Uzunboylu and Selcuk 2016; Bicer 2017; Borda et al. 2017).”
BackgroundMcCain, J., & Miller, A. N. (2013) · Journal of Advertising Education · doi:10.1177/109804821301700103 · Cited by 4
When does technology improve learning?
Newhouse, C. P. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.021 · Cited by 4
A Case Study of Peer Instruction
Porter, L., & Simon, B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.031 · Cited by 4
Norton, S. J. (2019) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2018v44n5.1 · Cited by 4
“While there remains controversy and debate with respect to the role of teachers in structuring effective discourse (e.g., Chen et al., 2016; Hattie, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller, 2016; Tricot & Sweller, 2014) the general consensus is that mathematics teachers with a deeper understanding of mathematical conten…”
BackgroundBernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Waddington, D. I., & Pickup, D. I. (2017) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.180 · Cited by 4
Teaching Teachers To Use Constructivist Approaches: A Proposal
Vaishali, V. (2019) · i-manager s Journal on School Educational Technology · doi:10.26634/jsch.14.4.15651 · Cited by 4
Stott, A. E. (2019) · African Journal of Research in Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.1080/18117295.2019.1630112 · Cited by 4
“These guides make use of scaffolding to provide as much support as is required for effective management of cognitive load (Kirschner et al., 2018) while expecting the learner to exert as great a degree of autonomy as possible (Ramnarain & Hobden, 2015). Additionally, the programme was enacted by a teacher (myself) wit…”
MethodKachinske, I., & DEKEYSER, R. M. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Studies · doi:10.1075/jsls.19003.kac · Cited by 4
Corpus-Based Data-Driven Learning to Augment L2 Students’ Vocabulary Repertoire
Rasikawati, I. (2019) · International Dialogues on Education Journal · doi:10.53308/ide.v6i2.61 · Cited by 4
“Other corresponding pedagogical approaches include problem-based learning, experiential learning, and constructivist learning (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundStudents’ statistical reasoning reviewed from academic internal factors in two learning classes
Cahyawati, D., Wahyudin, W., & Prabawanto, S. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1480/1/012051 · Cited by 4
Ward, J. L., & Vengrin, C. A. (2020) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme.1018-121r1 · Cited by 4
The Spelling Detective Project: A Year 2 Explicit Instruction Spelling Intervention
Robinson-Kooi, S., & Hammond, L. S. (2020) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2020v45n3.5 · Cited by 4
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) also previously found that “strong instructional guidance” (p. 8) that comprises three stages; introduction to the new content, the main lesson, and finally student practice with immediate teacher feedback was more effective than constructivist approaches.”
BackgroundEffects and Prerequisites of Self-Generation in Inquiry-Based Learning
Streich, I., & Mayer, J. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10100277 · Cited by 4
“However, since increased expertise reduces element interactivity and promotes semantic processing [2,19,23,24,27], students of the rereading condition might also have felt motivated to generate relations between the single information they learned in that eLearning program.”
BackgroundInfluentialDifferential Responses to Personalized Learning Recommendations Revealed by Event-Related Analysis.
Dieter, K. C., Studwell, J., & Vanacore, K. (2020) · Educational Data Mining · Cited by 4
Class Experiences with Inquiry Learning Spaces in Go-Lab in African Secondary Schools
Coenders, F. G. M., Gomes, N., Sayegh, R., et al. (2020) · African Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.21083/ajote.v9i2.6270 · Cited by 4
Providing ability to probability: Reducing cognitive load through worked‐out examples
Hadfield, K. F. (2020) · Teaching Statistics · doi:10.1111/test.12244 · Cited by 4
“Cognitive science suggests that seeing worked-out problems first makes the task easier and results in greater understanding in less time [1,8].”
BackgroundPuente, S. M. G., & Kroesen, G. M. W. (2020) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2020.812030 · Cited by 8
Learning, teaching, technology: confusing, complicated and contested!
Romeo, G. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316091968.005 · Cited by 4
The Virtual Tutor: Tasks for conversational agents in Online Collaborative Learning Environments
Gabriel, C., Hahne, C., Zimmermann, A., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the ... Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences/Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.24251/hicss.2021.012 · Cited by 4
“In the context of collaborative learning, in which students can become an active part of online discussions, supervision is vital for successful learning [9, 32].”
BackgroundPitchford, N. J., Gulliford, A., Outhwaite, L. A., Davitt, L. J., Katabua, E., & Essien, A. A. (2021) · Multilingual education yearbook · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72009-4_8 · Cited by 4
Kirchner, M., & London, M. (2021) · College Teaching · doi:10.1080/87567555.2021.1915235 · Cited by 8
“Instructors can alleviate this challenge by training students to provide constructive peer feedback and by offering guiding prompts which reduce likelihood of inaccurate comments (Gielen et al. 2010; Prins, Sluijsmans, & Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
BackgroundFlexible Program Alignment to Deliver Data-Driven Feedback to Novice Programmers
Marin, V. J., Contractor, M. R., & Rivero, C. R. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-80421-3_27 · Cited by 4
Mehmet Taha, E. S. E. R., & Cobanoglu, D. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Methodology · doi:10.12973/ijem.7.3.487 · Cited by 4
“A similar result was reached in another meta-analysis study conducted by Kirschner et al. (2006).”
BackgroundResultKenderdine, S., Yip, A., Oliver, C., Pather, N., Sammut, C., Djokic, T., Marcus, N., & Ong, A. (2021) · Creativity in the twenty first century · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72216-6_4 · Cited by 4
flotabilidad a examen en las aulas de infantil. Evaluación del nivel de guía del docente
Paños, E., Rodenas, P. M., & Ruíz-Gallardo, J.-R. (2021) · Enseñanza de las Ciencias Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas · doi:10.5565/rev/ensciencias.3281 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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