Cited by 2,089Psychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth disparities and outcomesAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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Developing a Measure of Loneliness

Russell, Dan, Peplau, Letitia Anne, Ferguson, Mary Lund·1978·Journal of Personality Assessment

DOI 10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11

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Abstract

Research on loneliness has been hindered by the lack of a simple and reliable assessment technique. The development of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, a short, 20-item general measure of loneliness is reported. The measure has high internal consistency (coefficient alpha = .96) and a test-retest correlation over a two-month period of .73. Concurrent and preliminary construct validity are indicated by correlations with self-reports of current loneliness and related emotional states, and by volunteering for a "loneliness clinic."

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Depression: Causes and treatment
Beck, A. T. (1973) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(73)80054-1 · Cited by 3,163
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Research works printed but not linked: 7

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“One of the most widely used scales is the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1978) to measure loneliness (Penning et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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“The total scores ranged from 3 to 12 with high scores indicating high levels of loneliness (Hughes et al., 2004; Russell et al., 1978).”
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“…the dichotomous assessment of loneliness may be seen as a limitation, but has been used with a high correlation with loneliness scales (Hughes et al., 2004); Russell et al., 1978) and used in various previous studies with adolescents (e.g., Stickley et al., 2016, 2014; Vancampfort et al., 2019).”
Result
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Method
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“They also completed the UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLALS) (Russell, Peplau, and Ferguson, 1978) for other purposes not relevant to the present study.”
Method
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“Surprisingly, only about half of the studies used a validated measure, including either the UCLA Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS; Russell et al., 1978; Russell, 1996; Elphinstone, 2018) or the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJG-LS; De Jong Gierveld and Van Tilburg, 1999, 2010).”
Method
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“Loneliness The feeling of loneliness was measured by the Persian version [53] of the UCLA Loneliness Questionnaire [54], consisting of 20 items (11 negatively stated).”
Method
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“The feeling of loneliness was measured by The Chinese version of the Loneliness Scale (Wang, 1995) which was revised from the classic Cheek and Russell Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1978).”
Method
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“This measurement, as well as the 20-item long form scale, has been widely used in the research community as a measurement of loneliness [61].”
Method
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“Russell et al. (1978) developed the scale.”
The Migrant-Local Difference in the Relationship Between Social Support, Sleep Disturbance, and Loneliness Among Older Adults in China: Cross-Sectional Study
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“This scale includes 20 items, which range from 1 (never) to 4 (often) [30].”
Background
Secrecy in Everyday Life
Bianchi, V., Greenaway, K. H., Moeck, E. K., Slepian, M. L., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241226560 · Cited by 16
“We used the original scale (Russell et al., 1978) with 20 items (e.g., “I cannot tolerate being so alone”; “I feel isolated from others”).”
Associations of history of alcohol use disorder with loneliness, social support, and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic
Luk, J. W., Leiter, N., Stangl, B. L., Gunawan, T., Schwandt, M. L., Goldman, D. A., Diazgranados, N., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115826 · Cited by 16
Associations between subtypes of social withdrawal and emotional eating during emerging adulthood
Etkin, R. G., Bowker, J. C., & Scalco, M. D. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.059 · Cited by 16
Programas para combatir la soledad en las personas mayores en el ámbito institucionalizado: una revisión de la literatura científica
Bermeja, A. I., & Ausín, B. (2017) · Revista Española de Geriatría y Gerontología · doi:10.1016/j.regg.2017.05.006 · Cited by 26
Psychosocial Outcomes Associated with Engagement with Online Chat Systems
Kaye, L. K., & Quinn, S. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1620524 · Cited by 17
Modeling of the UCLA Loneliness Scale According to the Multidimensional Item Response Theory
Auné, S. E., Abal, F. J. P., & Attorresi, H. F. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00646-y · Cited by 17
Understanding the association between parental attachment and loneliness among adolescents: The mediating role of self-esteem
Karababa, A. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01417-z · Cited by 16
Work, Stressors, and Psychosocial Adjustment of Undocumented Guatemalan Adolescents in United States Agriculture: A Mixed‐Methods Approach
Chavez, F. L. C., Gonzales‐Backen, M. A., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2021) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12640 · Cited by 16
The applicability of the UCLA loneliness scale in South Africa: Factor structure and dimensionality
Pretorius, T. B. (2021) · African Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.4102/ajopa.v4i0.63 · Cited by 16
A Study on Adolescent Students’ Levels of Hopelessness, Loneliness and Self-Esteem: A Sample from Turkey
Baran, M., Baran, M., & Maskan, A. (2015) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n2s1p341 · Cited by 16
Prediction of Resilience of Adolescents Whose Parents Are Divorced
Altundağ, Y., & Bulut, S. (2014) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2014.510134 · Cited by 16
Can physical warmth (or coldness) predict trait loneliness? A replication of Bargh and Shalev (2012).
Wortman, J., Donnellan, M. B., & Lucas, R. E. (2014) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000007 · Cited by 18
Social isolation: development and validation of measures
Ranjan, S., & Yadav, R. S. (2019) · Benchmarking An International Journal · doi:10.1108/bij-11-2018-0371 · Cited by 16
The Lived Experience of Childhood Loneliness: A Phenomenological Study
Kristensen, K. L. (1995) · Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.3109/01460869509080964 · Cited by 16
Low-Vision Elders: LIVING ARRANGEMENTS, LONELINESS, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT
Foxall, M. J., Barron, C. R., Dollen, K. V., Shull, K. A., & Jones, P. A. (1994) · Journal of Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/0098-9134-19940801-04 · Cited by 16
Loneliness: A Concept Relevant to the Care of Dying Persons
Zack, M. V. (1985) · Nursing Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0029-6465(22)00330-9 · Cited by 16
Do Written Reports of Suicide Induce High‐School Students to Believe that Suicidal Contagion Will Occur?1
McDonald, D. H., & Range, L. M. (1990) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00392.x · Cited by 16
Self-Perceived Mental Health Status, Digital Activity, and Physical Distancing in the Context of Lockdown Versus Not-in-Lockdown Measures in Italy and Croatia: Cross-Sectional Study in the Early Ascending Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic in March 2020
Kopilaš, V., Hasratian, A. M., Martinelli, L., Ivkić, G., Brajković, L., & Gajović, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621633 · Cited by 15
Psychological abuse, substance abuse distress, dissatisfaction with friendships, and incident psychiatric problems
Sheikh, M. A. (2018) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.03.001 · Cited by 16
Covid-19 Küresel Salgını Sürecinde Rekreasyona Aktif Katılımın Yalnızlık Algısına Etkisi (The Effect of Active Participation in Recreation on Perception of Loneliness During the Covid-19 Global Epidemic)
Hasan Suat, A. K. S. U., GÜNEŞ, S. G., & Kaya, A. (2022) · Turk Turizm Arastirmalari Dergisi · doi:10.26677/tr1010.2022.922 · Cited by 16
Predicting the severity of peer victimization and bullying perpetration among youth with interpersonal problems: A 6‐month prospective study
Arango, A., Clark, M., & King, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12005 · Cited by 15
Individuals attention bias in perceived loneliness: an ERP study
Du, X., Tang, Y., Jiang, Y., & Tian, Y. (2022) · Brain-Apparatus Communication A Journal of Bacomics · doi:10.1080/27706710.2022.2077639 · Cited by 17
Exploring Hikikomori-like idiom of distress a year into the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in Oman: Factorial validity of the 25-item Hikikomori Questionnaire, prevalence and associated factors
Al‐Sibani, N., Chan, M. F., Al‐Huseini, S., Kharusi, N. A., Guillemin, G. J., Al-Abri, M., Ganesh, A., Hasani, Y. A., & Al‐Adawi, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279612 · Cited by 15
“The current study did not go as far as to examine the factorial validity of HQ-25 by including external criteria such as the UCLA loneliness scale [99] and assess the diagnostic accuracy of the psychometric properties of HQ-25 of HQ-25 with the present Omani sample, which would have required diagnostic interviews with…”
Background
Testing a Holistic Framework of Early Care and Education and K–12 Leaders’ Working Conditions and Well-Being
Ford, T. G., Kwon, K., Lavigne, A. L., & McHugh, T. (2024) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584241235923 · Cited by 22
“…(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2018) for professional well-being and intent to leave (Meyer et al., 1993) and isolation (UCLA Loneliness Scale for work settings; Dussault & Thibodeau, 1997; Izgar, 2009; Russell et al., 1978, 1980) as measures of professional ill-being.”
Longitudinal Study of Mobile Telepresence Robots in Older Adults’ Homes: Uses, Social Connection, and Comfort with Technology
Rheman, J. M., Baggett, R., Šimeček, M., Fraune, M. R., & Tsui, K. M. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3674956 · Cited by 16
“Cronbach’s a = 0.945) and three additional items from the UCLA loneliness scale (“I find myself waiting for people to contact me,” “I am unable to reach out and communicate with those around me,” “my social relationships are superficial”), from 1 (never) to 4 (very often) (Russell et al., 1978).”
Influential
A study into the mental health of PhD students in Australia: investigating the determinants of depression, anxiety, and suicidality
Mills, L., Read, G. J. M., Bragg, J. E., Hutchinson, B. T., & Cox, J. A. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-72661-z · Cited by 16
Developing the University of the Philippines Loneliness Assessment Scale: A Cross-Cultural Measurement
Tharayil, D. P. (2011) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9805-x · Cited by 15
ÜNİVERSİTE ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN YALNIZLIK DÜZEYLERİ ÜZERİNE SPORUN ETKİSİ
ÖZÇELİK, İ. Y., İmamoğlu, O., Çekin, R., & Başpınar, S. G. (2015) · Spor ve Performans Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.17155/spd.18840 · Cited by 15
Pets and Loneliness: Examining the Efficacy of a Popular Measurement Instrument
Gilbey, A., & Tani, K. (2020) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.1080/08927936.2020.1771058 · Cited by 17
Internet Addiction and Social Self-Efficacy: The Mediator Role of Loneliness
Bakioğlu, F. (2020) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.394031 · Cited by 19

Authors: Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L.
Venue: Journal of Personality Assessment
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1978-06
Volume: 42
Issue: 3
Pages: 290-294
ISSN: 0022-3891 (ISSN-L)
1532-7752
DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
OpenAlex: W2014754251
Cited by: 2,089
References: 4
Citations by year: 2026: 169 · 2025: 169 · 2024: 186 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 181 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 132 · 2019: 119 · 2018: 77 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 63 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 30
FWCI: 18.07
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality Assessment (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: loneliness, UCLA Loneliness Scale, loneliness measurement, psychometric scale development, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, construct validity, emotional state
MeSH terms: Female, Humans, Loneliness, Male, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Self-Assessment, Social Isolation, Students, Time Factors

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