The DOI matches its Crossref record; 40 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 30 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Ethnic Polarization, Potential Conflict, and Civil Wars
Abstract
This paper analyzes the relationship between ethnic fractionalization, polarization, and conflict. In recent years many authors have found empirical evidence that ethnic fractionalization has a negative effect on growth. One mechanism that can explain this nexus is the effect of ethnic heterogeneity on rent-seeking activities and the increase in potential conflict, which is negative for investment. However the empirical evidence supporting the effect of ethnic fractionalization on the incidence of civil conflicts is very weak. Although ethnic fractionalization may be important for growth, we argue that the channel is not through an increase in potential ethnic conflict. We discuss the appropriateness of indices of polarization to capture conflictive dimensions. We develop a new measure of ethnic heterogeneity that satisfies the basic properties associated with the concept of polarization. The empirical section shows that this index of ethnic polarization is a significant variable in the explanation of the incidence of civil wars. This result is robust to the presence of other indicators of ethnic heterogeneity, other sources of data for the construction of the index, and other data structures.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that ethnic fractionalization is the wrong measure for capturing potential conflict; an ethnic polarization index (Q) better predicts civil war incidence. Using logit regressions on 138 countries from 1960–99, ethnic polarization is positive and significant while ethnic fractionalization is not.
Key findings
- Ethnic fractionalization (ETHFRAC) has no statistically significant effect on civil war incidence (coefficient 1.19, z=1.89 in column 1), consistent with Fearon and Laitin (2003) and Collier and Hoeffler (1998).
- Ethnic polarization (ETHPOL) has a positive and statistically significant effect: coefficient 2.37 (z=2.97) alone, and 2.28 (z=2.23) when ETHFRAC is included; ETHFRAC remains insignificant (0.17, z=0.19).
- The effect is economically important: moving polarization from the average (0.51) to Guinea’s level (0.84) almost doubles the probability of conflict; a one-standard-deviation increase (0.24) raises the probability by 67%.
- Robustness checks support ethnic polarization across alternative civil-war definitions (PRIO1000, PRIO25, Doyle–Sambanis, Fearon–Laitin), alternative data sources (Alesina et al., Atlas Narodov Mira), regional dummies, and cross-section regressions; religious polarization is less robust and depends on specification.
Methods
- Logit regressions for civil war incidence using a panel of 138 countries over 1960–99, divided into five-year periods; dependent variable is PRIOCW (PRIO intermediate/high-intensity civil war), with robustness using PRIO1000, PRIO25, DSCW, and FLCW definitions.
- Core explanatory variables: log real GDP per capita at period start (LGDPC), log population (LPOP), primary exports (PRIMEXP), mountains (MOUNTAINS), noncontiguous state (NONCONT), and democracy (DEMOCRACY); ethnic and religious fractionalization/polarization indices are added.
- Ethnic heterogeneity data primarily from the World Christian Encyclopedia; religious data from L’Etat des Religions dans le Monde and The Statesman’s Yearbook; robustness uses Alesina et al. (2003) and Atlas Narodov Mira data.
Limitations
- The paper states no formal limitations section. It notes that religious polarization’s statistical relevance depends on the particular specification, and that when Sub-Saharan African countries are eliminated and ethnic fractionalization is included, ethnic polarization becomes insignificant (coefficient 1.98, z=1.32).
- The paper also reports that ethnic polarization is only marginally significant using the Fearon and Laitin civil-war definition (coefficient 1.95, z=1.97).
- Evident from the text: the analysis is observational cross-country panel logit, so causal interpretation is limited; results may depend on group classification and data source, though the paper argues robustness across sources.
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Claims the paper makes
50 Own result · 19 No basis given · 16 Own interpretation · 11 No full text of the sources · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 4 Own method · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In general the correlation between the index of fractionalization obtained using these alternative data sources is very high (over 0.8).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2000)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Alesina et al (2003) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.2 reports a correlation of 0.88 between the paper’s linguistic index and the Soviet index, supporting one instance of the claim. But the corresponding ethnic-index correlation is 0.76, and the paper says the religious index has much lower correlations, so it does not support the generalization that correlations exceed 0.8. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not matchedcites Fearon (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The correlation with the index of Alesina et al. (2003) is 0.83.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Alesina et al. (2003) source
The Introduction (page unavailable) says Alesina et al. construct new fractionalization indices, so the citation correctly identifies the source of an index. The 0.83 correlation is presented as the citing paper’s comparison, not as a result attributed to Alesina et al. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The empirical section shows that this index of ethnic polarization is a signi cant variable in the explanation of the incidence of civil wars.”
- Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · p. 3 · plain
“In the empirical section we show that the index of ethnic polarization is a signi cant explanatory variable for the incidence of civil wars.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 1 Introduction · p. 3 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We develop a new measure of ethnic heterogeneity that satis es the basic properties associated with the concept of polarization.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The index of ethnic fractionalization calculated with our data has a correlation of 0.86 with the index obtained using the Atlas Nadorov Mira (ELF).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It shows that for low levels of fractionalization the correlation between ethnic fractionalization 20 and polarization is positive and high.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When we move from two groups to three groups the relationship between FRAC and Q breaks down.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column 4 shows that religious fractionalization (RELFRAC) is not statistically signi cant.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In column 7 we include together the index of ethnic polarization and religious polarization. Only the estimated coe¢ cient of the rst one is statistically signi cant.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However only three out of the ten countries with the highest level of religious fractionalization su/ered a civil war.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In recent years many authors have found empirical evidence that ethnic fractionalization has a negative e/ect on growth.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Easterly and Levine 1997 source
- Supportedcites Alesina et al. 2003 source
The Introduction says the paper broadly confirms earlier findings of a negative effect of ethnic fragmentation on growth. Section 3 reports an inverse relationship between ethnic fractionalization and per-capita growth, while noting that the association vanishes after controlling for potential mediating variables. Page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites La Porta et al. 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the fractionalization index the size of each group has no e/ect on the weight of the probabilities of two individuals belonging to di/erent groups whereas in the Q index these probabilities are weighted by the relative size of each group.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless we should notice that only in 3,6% of the countries the number of groups is equal to two.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column 3 checks the relative strength of the index of ethnic polarization versus fractionalization and shows that the coe¢ cient on ethnic fractionalization is not signi cantly di/erent from zero while the one on polarization is positive and signi cant.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It shows a similar pattern: for low levels of religious fractionalization the correlation with polarization is positive. However for intermediate and high levels of religious fractionalization the correlation is zero.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Q index is precisely the index DP (1 , 4) 13 .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This implies a very high degree of polarization (0.96), and a low level of fractionalization (0.52).”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Imagine now that we increase the size of one group by epsilon and decrease the size of another group by the same amount. Now the proportional contribution of the largest group in the index of fractionalization is smaller than its relative size, c i < π i , and the reverse happens for the smallest group.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is easy to show that the discrete Gini index (DG) calculated using a discrete metric is simply the index of fractionalization”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the index of polarization the result is the opposite: the proportional contribution of the largest group in the index of polarization is larger than its relative size, ˜ c i > π i , and the reverse happens to the smallest group.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We showed in the previous section that the index of fractionalization can be interpreted as a Gini index with a discrete metric (belong/do not belong to the group) instead of an Euclidean income distance.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However for the medium range the correlation is zero and for high levels of fractionalization the correlation with polarization is negative.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Column 6 shows the basic logit regressions using both religious fractionalization and religious polarization. The coe¢ cient of the index of religious fractionalization (RELFRAC) is marginally insigni cant while the index of religious polarization (RELPOL) is statistically signi cant.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both cases the degree of religious fractionalization is low.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Q index captures the idea of a large majority versus a large minority as the worst possible situation since the index in this case is close to the maximum.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The Q index can be interpreted as the polarization measure of Esteban and Ray (1994) with a discrete metric.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Esteban and Ray (1994) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Columns 1 and 2 show that ethnic polarization is statistically signi cant in the presence of regional dummies 31 , with and without the inclusion of ethnic fractionalization”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| RELPOL | | | | | 0.73 (1.00) | 3.90 (1.97) | 0.44 (0.65) | 3.29 (1.59) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| ETHPOL | | 2.37 (2.97) | 2.28 (2.23) | | | | 2.27 (2.84) | 2.09 (2.03) |”
- Also stated in: § References · p. 32 · plain
“| ETHPOL | 2.31 (2.76) | 1.95 (1.97) | 2.33 (2.16) | 2.05 (2.41) | 2.31 (2.23) | 2.32 (2.74) | 2.11 (2.02) | 2.35 (2.12) | 2.13 (2.48) |”
- Also stated in: § References · p. 34 · plain
“| ETHPOL | 3.35 (2.46) | 3.42 (2.48) | 3.26 (2.37) | 3.53 (2.44) | 2.95 (2.15) | 3.27 (2.26) |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § References · p. 32 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| ETHFRAC | 1.19 (1.89) | | 0.17 (0.19) | | | | | 0.04 (0.05) |”
- Also stated in: § References · p. 32 · plain
“| ETHFRAC | -0.52 (0.65) | 0.01 (0.01) | 0.57 (0.62) | -0.06 (0.09) | 0.18 (0.20) | -0.73 (0.92) | -0.14 (0.15) | 0.57 (0.63) | -0.17 (0.23) |”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § References · p. 32 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“opposite to what happens with the coe¢ cient of the index of fractionalization calculated using the same source (estimated coe¢ cient=1.27 and z=1.67).”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When ethnic dominance is included with the Q index, column 3, its coe¢ cient is not signi cant while ethnic polarization continues being a signi cant explanatory variable on the probability of civil wars.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| RELFRAC | | | | 0.37 (0.36) | | -4.97 (1.65) | | -4.45 (1.39) |”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Collier (2001) also emphasizes that the relationship between ethnic diversity and the risk of violent con icts is not monotonic. Highly heterogeneous societies have even a lower probability of civil wars than homogeneous societies. The highest risk is associated with the middle range of ethnic diversity. 8”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Collier (2001) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Horowitz (1985), which is the seminal reference on the issue of ethnic groups in con ict, argues that the relationship between ethnic diversity and civil wars is not monotonic: there is less violence in highly homogeneous and highly heterogeneous societies, and more con icts in societies where a large ethnic minority faces an ethnic majority.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Horowitz (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Finally Fearon and Laitin (2003) indicate that a large population implies di¢ culties in controlling what goes on at the local level and increases the number of potential rebels that can be recruited by the insurgents.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fearon and Laitin (2003) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However their theoretical arguments, as they recognize explicitly, are based on polarized societies 4 not on highly fractionalized cases.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Easterly and Levine (1997) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Fearon and Laitin (2003) and Collier and Hoe› er (2002) nd that neither ethnic fractionalization nor religious fractionalization have any statistically signi cant e/ect on the probability of civil wars.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fearon and Laitin (2003) source
- Not matchedcites Collier and Hoeffler (2002)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Collier and Hoe› er (2002) consider that the size of the population is an additional proxy for the bene ts of a rebellion since it measures potential labor income taxation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collier and Hoeffler (2002)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Collier and Hoe› er (2002) point out that the existence of natural resources provide an opportunity for rebellion since these resources can be used to nance the war and increases the payo/ if victory is achieved.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collier and Hoeffler (2002)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However the di/erence between ethnic polarization and fractionalization is both theoretical and actual.”
- Also stated in: § 7 Conclusions · p. 24 · boosted
“In this paper we have shown that the di/erence between ethnic polarization and fractionalization is both theoretical and actual.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 7 Conclusions · p. 24 · boosted
In the paper
“Notice also that Fearon (2003) points out that the index of fractionalization, being not sensitive to discontinuities, cannot capture important di/erences in ethnic structures. In particular the idea of majority rule is not well re ected by the index of fractionalization.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fearon (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We argued before that a high number of di/erent groups increases the coordination problems and, therefore, given a level of polarization, the probability of civil wars may be smaller.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The absolute z-statistics in parenthesis are calculated using standard errors adjusted for clustering.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In addition Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005) con rm that ethnolinguistic fractionalization has a direct negative e/ect on growth, probably due to its impact on the transmission of ideas.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Civil wars are traumatic events that damage economic development.
“There is no doubt that civil wars are traumatic events that damage economic development.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 4.2 Are empirical polarization and fractionalization very di/erent? · p. 11
“Figure 3 shows the relationship between the index of ethnic fractionalization and ethnic polarization constructed using the data of Alesina et al. (2003).”
§ 4.2 Are empirical polarization and fractionalization very di/erent? · p. 14
“Figure 3: Ethnic fractionalization versus polarization. Source: Atlas Nadorov Mira.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 4.2 Are empirical polarization and fractionalization very di/erent? · p. 11
“Figure 4 shows ethnic fractionalization and polarization calculated using the data from the Atlas Nadorov Mira, the third basic source of data on ethnic diversity.”
§ 4.2 Are empirical polarization and fractionalization very di/erent? · p. 15
“Figure 4: Ethnic fractionalization versus polarization. Source: Alesina et al. (2003).”
Citations
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Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War
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“This result is consistent with Fearon and Laitin (2003) and Collier and Hoeffler (1998).”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 1,383
Jha, S. (2014) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2014.02.023 · Cited by 55
Coalition formation and polarisation
Indridason, I. (2011) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2011.01990.x · Cited by 55
Fighting for Local Control: Street Violence in the Basque Country
Robles, L. D. L. C. (2007) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2478.2007.00458.x · Cited by 56
The Political Economy of the Maoist Conflict in India: An Empirical Analysis
Gomes, J. A. (2014) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.11.021 · Cited by 55
Valuing Peace: The Effects of Financial Market Exposure on Votes and Political Attitudes
Jha, S., & Shayo, M. (2016) · Econometrica · doi:10.3982/ecta16385 · Cited by 61
The Security-Force Ethnicity (SFE) Project: Introducing a new dataset
Johnson, P. L., & Thurber, C. (2017) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894217709012 · Cited by 54
Subnational diversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from a new dataset
Gershman, B., & Rivera, D. (2018) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.01.003 · Cited by 59
Ethnicity and the spread of civil war
Bosker, M., & de Ree, J. (2014) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2014.02.002 · Cited by 60
“Not only are ethnically divided countries more likely to experience the devastating consequences of civil war in the first place (Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005)),”
BackgroundTrends in African Migration to Europe: Drivers Beyond Economic Motivations
Giménez-Gómez, J.-M., Walle, Y. M., & Zergawu, Y. Z. (2019) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002718823907 · Cited by 62
The Origins of Ethnolinguistic Diversity: Theory and EvidencePreprint
Michalopoulos, S. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1286893 · Cited by 54
“…linguistic, ethnic and religious fractionalization indexes constructed by Alesina et al. (2003), the absolute number of ethnic or linguistic groups derived by Fearon (2003) or the ethnic fractionalization measure proposed by Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005) the qualitative results are similar.30”
BackgroundEthnic divisions and public goods provision, revisited
Gisselquist, R. M. (2013) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2012.762106 · Cited by 60
Quantifying Indonesia's Ethnic Diversity
Arifin, E. N., Ananta, A., Utami, D. R. W. W., Handayani, N. B., & Pramono, A. (2015) · Asian Population Studies · doi:10.1080/17441730.2015.1090692 · Cited by 66
“Theoretically, as argued in Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005), EFI and EPOI have strong positive correlation at low levels of EFI, are negatively correlated at high levels of EFI, and have no correlation at intermediate levels of EFI.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Political Economy of Ethnolinguistic Cleavages
Desmet, K., Ortuño-Ortı́n, I., & Wacziarg, R. T. (2009) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w15360 · Cited by 53
“Klaus Desmet Department of Economics Universidad Carlos III”
State-Sponsored Mass Killing in African Wars—Greed or Grievance?
Querido, C. M. (2009) · International Advances in Economic Research · doi:10.1007/s11294-009-9207-x · Cited by 52
How does ethnic diversity affect energy poverty? Insights from South Africa
Koomson, I., Afoakwah, C., & Ampofo, A. A. (2022) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2022.106079 · Cited by 59
Divided we stay home: Social distancing and ethnic diversity
Egorov, G., Сергеевич, Е. Р., Makarin, A., & Petrova, M. (2021) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104328 · Cited by 53
Bramoullé, Y., & Goyal, S. (2016) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.04.006 · Cited by 59
Lieberman, E. S., & Singh, P. (2012) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-012-9100-0 · Cited by 52
Why an economic core: domestic transport costs
Ramcharan, R. (2008) · Journal of Economic Geography · doi:10.1093/jeg/lbn045 · Cited by 51
Modernization, ethnic fractionalization, and democracy
Jensen, C., & Skaaning, S. (2011) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2011.619777 · Cited by 50
Rebel constituencies and rebel violence against civilians in civil conflicts
Ottmann, M. (2015) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/0738894215570428 · Cited by 59
“Following Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005), I also compute a linguistic polarization index for each rebel constituency ranging from zero to one.”
MethodDincecco, M., & Onorato, M. G. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316677131 · Cited by 121
Reappraising the Greed and Grievance Explanations for Violent Internal ConflictPreprint
Murshed, S. M., & Tadjoeddin, M. Z. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1116248 · Cited by 49
Couttenier, M., Soubeyran, R., & Berman, N. (2017) · HAL AMU · Cited by 49
Nathan, L. (2003) · London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) · Cited by 48
Marquardt, K. L. (2017) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414017720701 · Cited by 48
“…in the form of either fractionalization or polarization indices (Collier & Hoeffler, 2004; Esteban, Mayoral, & Ray, 2012; Fearon & Laitin, 2003; Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005) or by measuring the presence and characteristics of politically relevant ethnic groups (Cederman, Hug, Schädel, &…”
BackgroundEthnic Diversity and Food Insecurity: Evidence from Ghana
Koomson, I., & Churchill, S. A. (2021) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2021.1928641 · Cited by 50
“According to Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005), there is an inverted-U relationship between ethnic diversity and the likelihood of conflict.”
BackgroundMethodThe Pacifying Effects of Local Religious Institutions
de Juan, A., Pierskalla, J. H., & Vüllers, J. (2015) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912915578460 · Cited by 51
“Notably, quantitative studies have argued that specific demographic structures—such as religious fractionalization or polarization—increase the likelihood of violence (e.g., Ellingsen 2000; Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005).”
BackgroundHow Polarized are Citizens? Measuring Ideology from the Ground-Up
Draca, M., & Schwarz, C. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3154431 · Cited by 48
“An indicative list includes: Alesina et al. (2003), Bossert et al. (2011), Caselli and Coleman (2013), Duclos et al. (2004), Esteban and Ray (1994) and Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005).”
Do more ethnically and religiously diverse countries have lower democratization?
Akdede, S. H. (2009) · Economics Letters · doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2009.10.013 · Cited by 48
Indirect colonial rule and the salience of ethnicity
McNamee, L. (2019) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.017 · Cited by 49
Local warming and violent armed conflict in Africa
van Weezel, S. (2020) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104708 · Cited by 48
Are natural resources bad for health?
Anshasy, A. A. E., & Katsaiti, M. (2015) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.12.011 · Cited by 47
Coming Apart? Cultural Distances in the United States over Time
Bertrand, M., & Kamenica, E. (2023) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.20210663 · Cited by 62
The role of rural producer organizations for agricultural service provision in fragile states:Preprint
Golan, J., & Ragasa, C. (n.d.) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 49
Han, E., & Paik, C. (2013) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741013001392 · Cited by 45
Exchange on the quantitative measurement of ethnic and national identity*
Bochsler, D., Green, E. D., Jenne, E. K., Mylonas, H., & Wimmer, A. (2021) · Nations and Nationalism · doi:10.1111/nana.12688 · Cited by 50
POLARIZACION Y COHESION SOCIAL DEL SISTEMA ESCOLAR CHILENO
Villalobos, C., & Valenzuela, J. P. (2012) · Revista de análisis económico · doi:10.4067/s0718-88702012000200005 · Cited by 45
Dynamic ethnic fractionalization and economic growth
Campos, N. F., Saleh, A. M., & Kuzeyev, V. S. (2011) · Journal of International Trade & Economic Development · doi:10.1080/09638199.2011.538218 · Cited by 47
“Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005) argue that the direct effect of fractionalization on economic performance is weak and suggest focusing on polarization instead.”
BackgroundMethodCensus Enumeration and Group Conflict
Lieberman, E. S., & Singh, P. (2016) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887116000198 · Cited by 48
“18 world politics 46 including, for example, Vanhanen 1999. sambanis 2001; montalvo and reynal-Querol 2005; fearon and laitin 2003; Wimmer, cederman, and min 2009; Walter 2009; cederman, Weidmann, and gleditsch 2011.”
BackgroundAiding Conflict: The Impact of U.S. Food Aid on Civil War
Nunn, N., & Qian, N. (2012) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17794 · Cited by 49
“…literature has thus far tended to focus on determinants such as ethnic divisions (e.g., Alberto Alesina and Easterly, 1999; Fearon and Laitin, 2003; Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, 2005), income (e.g., Dube and Vargas, 2009; Miguel, Satyanath and Sergenti, 2004), institutions (e.g., Ahmed, 2010;…”
Is Africa Different? Historical Conflict and State Development
Dincecco, M., Fenske, J. E., & Onorato, M. G. (2019) · Economic History of Developing Regions · doi:10.1080/20780389.2019.1586528 · Cited by 54
“There is a large literature that links ethnic fragmentation with civil conflict (e.g., Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, 2005).”
BackgroundRelational diversity and neighbourhood cohesion. Unpacking variety, balance and in-group size
Koopmans, R., & Schaeffer, M. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.05.010 · Cited by 44
Svensson, I., & Lindgren, M. (2010) · European Journal of International Relations · doi:10.1177/1354066109350049 · Cited by 43
“Finally, we test our third implication by studying the degree of ethnic polarization of the society (ETHPOL), using the recently published data of Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005a, 2005b).17 The data departs from a strictly biological definition of ethnicity and operationalizes ethnic distance as…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMicrofoundations of Civil Conflict Reconciliation: Ethnicity and Context
Dyrstad, K., Buhaug, H., Ringdal, K., Simkus, A. A., & Listhaug, O. (2011) · International Interactions · doi:10.1080/03050629.2011.622627 · Cited by 43
Steele, L. G., Bostic, A., Lynch, S. M., & Abdelaaty, L. E. (2022) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-030420-015435 · Cited by 51
Trade, Institutions and Religious Tolerance: Evidence from IndiaPreprint
Jha, S. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.948734 · Cited by 44
“…and discouraging conflict between ethnic groups, this paper introduces a new dimension into studies that have sought to understand the role of ethnicity as a determinant of civil conflict and public goods provision (Horowitz 1985, DiPasquale and Glaeser 1998, Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005).”
BackgroundThe Heavy Economic Toll of Gender-based Violence: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa
Ouedraogo, R., & Stenzel, D. (2021) · IMF Working Paper · doi:10.5089/9781557754073.001 · Cited by 46
“Based on the religious beliefs of respondents, we constructed a religious fractionalization index following the Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005) methodology.”
MethodResultWhy Ethnic Subaltern-Led Parties Crowd Out Armed Organizations: Explaining Maoist Violence in India
Chandra, K., & García‐Ponce, O. (2019) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s004388711800028x · Cited by 41
“…and hoeffler 1998; Sambanis 2001; Elbadawi and Sambanis 2002), indices of ethnic polarization (Esteban and ray 1994; Esteban, mayoral, and ray 2012; montalvo and reynal-Querol 2005), measures of ethnic dominance (collier 2003), and measures of the spatial distribution of ethnic groups (cederman…”
BackgroundPathogens, Weather Shocks and Civil Conflicts
Cervellati, M., Sunde, U., & Valmori, S. (2016) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/ecoj.12430 · Cited by 57
Ethnic Diversity and Health Outcomes
Churchill, S. A., Ocloo, J. E., & Siawor-Robertson, D. (2016) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1454-7 · Cited by 45
Political instability, ethnic fractionalization and economic growth
Karnane, P., & Quinn, M. A. (2017) · International Economics and Economic Policy · doi:10.1007/s10368-017-0393-3 · Cited by 46
Why Are People Energy Poor? Evidence From Ethnic Fractionalization
Paudel, J. (2021) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105519 · Cited by 41
FRACTIONALIZATION, POLARIZATION, AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: IDENTIFYING THE TRANSMISSION CHANNELS
Papyrakis, E., & Mo, P. H. (2014) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12070 · Cited by 43
Inequalities between Groups: Theory and Empirics
Jayadev, A., & Reddy, S. G. (2010) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.11.032 · Cited by 39
“Some have argued that recently developed measures are better predictors of ethnic violence and civil conflict than previously developed measures such as inter-personal inequality or ethnic fractionalization (see in particular Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005; Østby, 2008).”
BackgroundBasedau, M., & Pierskalla, J. H. (2014) · Political Geography · doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2013.10.001 · Cited by 47
The Economics of Conflict and Peace
Rohner, D. (2017) · Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0431 · Cited by 40
“…of groups) has been found to correlate positively with conflict, the strongest effect has been found from ethnic polarization (which is largest in a bipolar distribution of two similarly sized groups facing each other) (see Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, 2005; Rohner, 2011; Esteban et al., 2012).”
BackgroundHate Crime Increases with Minoritized Group Rank
Cikara, M., Fouka, V., & Tabellini, M. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01416-5 · Cited by 46
The health costs of ethnic distance: evidence from sub-Saharan Africa
Gomes, J. F. (2020) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-020-09177-4 · Cited by 41
“…have highlighted the relevance of ethnic polarization (ELP) rather than fractionalization, particularly in the context of intergroup conflict (Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005).51 Panel 2 of Table 6 reruns the estimations described for Panel 1, but using ELP at different levels of aggregation…”
InfluentialSegregation and conflict: An empirical analysis
Corvalán, A., & Vargas, M. (2015) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.05.002 · Cited by 42
Pro-environmental Norms, Green Lifestyles, and Subjective Well-Being: Panel Evidence from the UK
Binder, M., Blankenberg, A., & Heinz Welsch, B. (2020) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-020-02426-4 · Cited by 40
“…which additionally takes into account the size of the group to which an individual belongs and is closer to unity the more polarized a society is with regard to an attitude or a behavior (a more detailed discussion of these measures is given in the Appendix, cf. Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005).”
BackgroundLand, Violent Conflict and Development
Pons-Vignon, N., & Lecomte, H.-B. S. (2004) · OECD Development Centre working papers · doi:10.1787/717151268534 · Cited by 39
We the peoples? The strange demise of self-determination
Abulof, U. (2015) · European Journal of International Relations · doi:10.1177/1354066115595096 · Cited by 39
Indigenous Identity, Natural Resources, and Contentious Politics in Bolivia
Mähler, A., & Pierskalla, J. H. (2014) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414014545012 · Cited by 40
“Some authors have focused on demographic constellations of ethnic groups (Fearon & Laitin, 2003; Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005), or their political exclusion at the national level (Cederman, Wimmer, & Min, 2010).”
BackgroundWhat can Okun teach Polanyi? Efficiency, regulation and equality in the OECD
Hopkin, J., & Blyth, M. M. (2011) · Review of International Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09692290.2010.526469 · Cited by 38
“A measure of ethnic diversity within a state around 2000 (score taken from Montalvo and Reynard-Querol, 2005).”
BackgroundETHNIC DIVERSITY, PROPERTY RIGHTS, AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Baggio, J. A., & Papyrakis, E. (2010) · The Developing Economies · doi:10.1111/j.1746-1049.2010.00116.x · Cited by 42
“provided by Alesina et al. (2003) and Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005a; 2005b) respectively.”
InfluentialPre-Colonial Warfare and Long-Run Development in India
Dincecco, M., Fenske, J. E., Menon, A., & Mukherjee, S. (2020) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1093/ej/ueab089 · Cited by 51
Facts and Where to Find Them: Empirical Research on Internet Platforms and Content Moderation
Keller, D., & Leerssen, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.011 · Cited by 39
Bots and Computational Propaganda: Automation for Communication and Control
Woolley, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.006 · Cited by 41
Should they stay or should they go? Climate migrants and local conflicts
Bosetti, V., Cattaneo, C., & Peri, G. (2020) · Journal of Economic Geography · doi:10.1093/jeg/lbaa002 · Cited by 45
Ethnic Group Inequalities and Governance: Evidence from Developing Countries
Kyriacou, A. P. (2013) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/kykl.12012 · Cited by 39
Religion Versus Ethnicity as a Source of Mobilisation: Are There Differences?Preprint
Stewart, F. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1495152 · Cited by 38
“There are also quite severe socio-economic and political horizontal inequalities in each country, whether assessed by ethnic group or by religion (evidence is provided by Langer et al. 2007; Mustapha 2005; Sundaram 2001; Khoo 2001).”
Ethnic diversity decreases turnout. Comparative evidence from over 650 elections around the world
Coma, F. M. I., & Nai, A. (2017) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2017.07.002 · Cited by 37
“9 Ethnic Fragmentation (Fearon 2003) 550 .37 .23 .003 1 Ethnic Fragmentation (Roeder 2003) 603 .41 .23 .004 .82 Ethnic Fragmentation (Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005a, 2005b)”
Mapping Constitutionally Safeguarded Judicial Independence—A Global Survey
Hayo, B., & Voigt, S. (2014) · Journal of Empirical Legal Studies · doi:10.1111/jels.12038 · Cited by 37
Cultural Leaders and the Clash of Civilizations
Hauk, E., & Mueller, H. (2013) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002713503793 · Cited by 33
“See, for example, Esteban and Ray (1994) and Montalvo and Reynal-Querol (2005).”
BackgroundEthnic Bias in Judicial Decision Making: Evidence from Criminal Appeals in Kenya
Choi, D. D., Harris, J. A., & Shen-Bayh, F. F. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s000305542100143x · Cited by 37
Campos, N. F., Hsiao, C. H., & Nugent, J. B. (2010) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220388.2010.492865 · Cited by 37
“…help reform: (1) by providing the incentive for exploring new coalitions and bases for agreement on burden-sharing (and thus more ways out of the impasse over reform) and (2) by taking into consideration the difference between fractionalisation and polarisation (Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, 2005).”
BackgroundCultural Diversity and Cultural Distance as Choice Determinants of Migration Destination
Wang, Z., de Graaff, T., & Nijkamp, P. J. (2015) · Spatial Economic Analysis · doi:10.1080/17421772.2016.1102956 · Cited by 37
Ali, R., Barra, A. F., Berg, C. N., et al. (2015) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-7273 · Cited by 37
“…to be a strong determinant of the probability and duration of conflict (Wegenast and Basedau 2014; Esteban and Ray 2012; Esteban and Schneider 2008; Schneider and Wiesehomeier 2008; Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005; Reynal-Querol 2002; Gurr 2000; Collier and Hoeffler 1998; Horowitz 1985).”
Implications of an Economic Theory of Conflict: Hindu-Muslim Violence in India
Mitra, A., & Ray, D. (2013) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19090 · Cited by 37
Intergroup contact and nation building: Evidence from military service in Spain
Cáceres-Delpiano, J., Moragas, A.-I. D., Facchini, G., & González, I. (2021) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104477 · Cited by 44
Oil and ethnic inequality in Nigeria
Fenske, J. E., & Zurimendi, I. (2017) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1007/s10887-017-9149-8 · Cited by 39
“The importance of ethnic divisions for outcomes such as government quality, conflict and public goods provision is not limited to Africa (Alesina and Zhuravskaya, 2011; Baldwin OIL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY IN NIGERIA 5 and Huber, 2010; Esteban et al., 2012; Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, 2005).”
BackgroundNationalism and Support for Immigrants' Rights Among Adolescents in 25 Countries
Barber, C. H., Fennelly, K., & Torney-Purta, J. V. (2013) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2013.774870 · Cited by 38
“Their work has been widely used in studies of political and ethnic conflict (e.g., Hooghe, Reeskens, Stolle, & Trappers, 2009; Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005).”
MethodParadox of diversity in the collective brain
Schimmelpfennig, R., Razek, L., Schnell, E., & Muthukrishna, M. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0316 · Cited by 41
“Moreover, within both corporations [144] and countries [143,145,146], moderate, clustered diversity is associatedwith greater conflict.”
BackgroundIncome Polarization in the Peoplees Republic of China: Trends and Changes
Wang, C., & Wan, G. (2015) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2015.08.007 · Cited by 41
“Polarization is an important issue, but it has largely been neglected in “mainstream” economics until recently (Gochoco-Bautista, Bautista, Maligalig, & Sotocinal, 2013, Fajnzylber, Lederman, & Loayza, 2000, Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005, D'Ambrosio & Wolff, 2006).”
BackgroundAlesina, A., Michalopoulos, S., & Papaioannou, E. (2012) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w18512 · Cited by 36
The Great Recession and social preferences: Evidence from Ukraine
Haas, R. D., Djourelova, M., & Nikolova, E. (2015) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2015.10.007 · Cited by 35
Local ethno-political polarization and election violence in majoritarian vs. proportional systems
Müller‐Crepon, C. (2021) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343320973724 · Cited by 35
“24 See also Montalvo & Reynal-Querol (2005) on ethnic polarization and civil conflict.”
BackgroundCaldeira, É. (2011) · Journal of African Economies · doi:10.1093/jae/ejr037 · Cited by 35
Bleaney, M., & Dimico, A. (2016) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137416000369 · Cited by 45
Kalyvas, S. N. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018 · Cited by 35
Natural resources, export structure, and investment
Bond, S. R., & Malik, A. (2009) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpp025 · Cited by 35
“A popular thesis, proposed by Ross (2001), is that oil fuels authoritarianism.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPublic Action for Public Goods
Banerjee, A., Iyer, L., & Somanathan, R. (2007) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w12911 · Cited by 97
Blattman, C., & Miguel, E. A. (2009) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w14801 · Cited by 39
“Ethnic polarization and the limits of democratic practice”
Shoup, B. D. (2018) · Democratization · doi:10.1080/13510347.2018.1475474 · Cited by 36
Ishiyama, J. (2014) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.12020 · Cited by 34
Horizontal inequality as an outcome
Canelas, C., & Gisselquist, R. M. (2018) · Oxford Development Studies · doi:10.1080/13600818.2018.1508565 · Cited by 34
“They also were asked to consider several additional measures, including ‘crosscuttingness’ (Rae & Taylor, 1970; Selway, 2011), ethnic fractionalization (Taylor & Hudson, 1972), and ethnic polarization (Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005).”
BackgroundThe conversations we seek to avoid
Sun, K. Q., & Slepian, M. L. (2020) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.03.002 · Cited by 38
The Effect of Migration on Terror - Made at Home or Imported from Abroad?
Dreher, A., Gassebner, M., & Schaudt, P. (2017) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.1111/caje.12469 · Cited by 34
Hierro, M. J., & Gallego, A. (2016) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002716682593 · Cited by 37
“In turn, polarized identities can increase the likelihood and harshness of conflict (Montalvo and Reynal-Querol 2005; Esteban and Ray 2008).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Montalvo, J. G., & Reynal-Querol, M.
- Affiliations
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ES)
- The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433.
- ORCID
- Montalvo, José G
- Venue
- American Economic Review
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2005-06-01
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 796-816
- ISSN
- 0002-8282 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1975264861
- Semantic Scholar
- d34e25710e0f59c77127215c237c4e3a5a19820b
- Cited by
- 1,386
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 97 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 77 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 79 · 2013: 80 · 2012: 61
- FWCI
- 145.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Economic Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Development › Culture, Economy, and Development Studies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Natural Resources and Economic Development
- Keywords
- ethnic fractionalization, ethnic conflict, civil war, ethnic distance, ethnic diversity, economic growth, political instability, corruption, investment, ethnic classification
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