Research Note—Gamification of Technology-Mediated Training: Not All Competitions Are the Same
Abstract
Gamification, an application of game design elements to non-gaming contexts, is proposed as a way to add engagement in technology-mediated training programs. Yet there is hardly any information on how to adapt game design elements to improve learning outcomes and promote learner engagement. To address this issue, we focus on a popular game design element, competition, and specifically examine the effects of different competitive structures, i.e., whether a person faces a higher-skilled, lower-skilled or equally-skilled competitor, on learning and engagement. We study a gamified training design for databases, where trainees play a trivia-based mini-game with a competitor after each e-training module. Trainees who faced a lower-skilled competitor reported higher self-efficacy beliefs and better learning outcomes, supporting the effect of peer appraisal, a less examined aspect of social cognitive theory. Yet trainees who faced equally-skilled competitors reported higher levels of engagement, supporting the balance principle of flow theory. Our study findings indicate that no one competitive structure can simultaneously address learning and engagement outcomes. The choice of competitive structures depends on the priority of the outcomes in training. Our findings provide one explanation for the mixed findings on the effect of competitive gamification designs in technology mediated training.
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Some studies show positive outcomes of gamification, while others report declines in motivation due to competition, poor design, or reduced novelty.
“While some studies show positive outcomes (e.g., Sailer & Homner, 2020), others report declines in motivation due to competition, poor design, or reduced novelty (e.g., Hanus & Fox, 2015;Santhanam et al., 2016).”
From Gamification on Mathematics Engagement and Motivation in Secondary School and Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Santhanam et al., 2016
Leaderboard features emphasizing constant peer comparison may undermine self-efficacy, particularly for lower-ranked students, unless carefully framed to support personal progress and collaboration.
“In contrast, leaderboard features that emphasize constant peer comparison may undermine self-efficacy, particularly for lower-ranked students, unless carefully framed to support personal progress and collaboration (Santhanam et al., 2016).”
From Gamification on Mathematics Engagement and Motivation in Secondary School and Higher Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Santhanam et al., 2016
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- Authors
- Santhanam, R., Liu, D., & Shen, W.-C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Oklahoma (US)
- Department of Information and Decision Sciences, Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
- University of Alabama in Huntsville (US)
- Venue
- Information Systems Research
- Published
- 2016-06
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 453-465
- ISSN
- 1047-7047 (ISSN-L)
- 1526-5536
- OpenAlex
- W2343413709
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 31.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Information Systems Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Keywords
- gamification, game elements, competition, competitive structure, online learning, student engagement, self-efficacy, peer assessment, social cognitive theory, flow theory, balance principle, database training
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