Sustained effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the Healthy Activity Programme, a brief psychological treatment for depression delivered by lay counsellors in primary care: 12-month follow-up of a randomised controlled trial
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BACKGROUND: The Healthy Activity Programme (HAP), a brief behavioural intervention delivered by lay counsellors, enhanced remission over 3 months among primary care attendees with depression in peri-urban and rural settings in India. We evaluated the sustainability of the effects after treatment termination, the cost-effectiveness of HAP over 12 months, and the effects of the hypothesized mediator of activation on clinical outcomes. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Primary care attendees aged 18-65 years screened with moderately severe to severe depression on the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) were randomised to either HAP plus enhanced usual care (EUC) (n = 247) or EUC alone (n = 248), of whom 95% completed assessments at 3 months, and 91% at 12 months. Primary outcomes were severity on the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and remission on the PHQ-9. HAP participants maintained the gains they showed at the end of treatment through the 12-month follow-up (difference in mean BDI-II score between 3 and 12 months = -0.34; 95% CI -2.37, 1.69; p = 0.74), with lower symptom severity scores than participants who received EUC alone (adjusted mean difference in BDI-II score = -4.45; 95% CI -7.26, -1.63; p = 0.002) and higher rates of remission (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 1.36; 95% CI 1.15, 1.61; p < 0.009). They also fared better on most secondary outcomes, including recovery (aPR = 1.98; 95% CI 1.29, 3.03; p = 0.002), any response over time (aPR = 1.45; 95% CI 1.27, 1.66; p < 0.001), higher likelihood of reporting a minimal clinically important difference (aPR = 1.42; 95% CI 1.17, 1.71; p < 0.001), and lower likelihood of reporting suicidal behaviour (aPR = 0.71; 95% CI 0.51, 1.01; p = 0.06). HAP plus EUC also had a marginal effect on WHO Disability Assessment Schedule score at 12 months (aPR = -1.58; 95% CI -3.33, 0.17; p = 0.08); other outcomes (days unable to work, intimate partner violence toward females) did not statistically significantly differ between the two arms. Economic analyses indicated that HAP plus EUC was dominant over EUC alone, with lower costs and better outcomes; uncertainty analysis showed that from this health system perspective there was a 95% chance of HAP being cost-effective, given a willingness to pay threshold of Intl$16,060-equivalent to GDP per capita in Goa-per quality-adjusted life year gained. Patient-reported behavioural activation level at 3 months mediated the effect of the HAP intervention on the 12-month depression score (β = -2.62; 95% CI -3.28, -1.97; p < 0.001). Serious adverse events were infrequent, and prevalence was similar by arm. We were unable to assess possible episodes of remission and relapse that may have occurred between our outcome assessment time points of 3 and 12 months after randomisation. We did not account for or evaluate the effect of mediators other than behavioural activation. CONCLUSIONS: HAP's superiority over EUC at the end of treatment was largely stable over time and was mediated by patient activation. HAP provides better outcomes at lower costs from a perspective covering publicly funded healthcare services and productivity impacts on patients and their families. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN registry ISRCTN95149997.
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In India, brief psychological therapy delivered by lay health workers to young people living with severe depression was found to be cost-effective at both 3-month and 12-month follow-up from a health system perspective, and was found to be cost-saving when considering impacts on subsistence activity and employment.
“In India, brief psychological therapy delivered by lay health workers to young people living with severe depression was found to be costeffective at both 3-month and 12-month follow-up from a health system perspective, and was found to be costsaving when considering impacts on subsistence activity and employment. 450,451”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [451]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEvidence also shows HAP's effectiveness and cost-effectiveness are sustained, suggesting it could be implemented in Indian health systems.
“There is also evidence demonstrating the sustained effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of HAP, highlighting its potential for implementation within health systems in India (Weobong et al., 2017).”
From Acceptability and feasibility of digital technology for training community health workers to deliver brief psychological treatment for depression in rural India (2019) · cites this paper as Weobong et al., 2017
HAP is a short psychological intervention for depression that non-specialist counsellors deliver.
“One such intervention is the Healthy Activity Program (HAP), a brief psychological treatment for depression delivered by non-specialist counsellors that achieved moderate effect on reducing depressive symptoms and emerged as cost-effective in routine primary care attenders (Patel et al., 2017; Weobong et al., 2017).”
From Acceptability and feasibility of digital technology for training community health workers to deliver brief psychological treatment for depression in rural India (2019) · cites this paper as Weobong et al., 2017
In routine primary care attenders, HAP produced a moderate reduction in depressive symptoms and was cost-effective.
“One such intervention is the Healthy Activity Program (HAP), a brief psychological treatment for depression delivered by non-specialist counsellors that achieved moderate effect on reducing depressive symptoms and emerged as cost-effective in routine primary care attenders (Patel et al., 2017; Weobong et al., 2017).”
From Acceptability and feasibility of digital technology for training community health workers to deliver brief psychological treatment for depression in rural India (2019) · cites this paper as Weobong et al., 2017
The stepped-care programme evaluated by Araya et al (2006) was more effective and costlier than usual care, with an extra US$0.75 per depression-free day.
“The stepped-care programme was more effective and costlier than usual care (an extra US$0.75 per depression-free day). 34”
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Self-citationDelivering cost effective healthcare through reverse innovation
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Self-citationThe Long-Run Effects of Psychotherapy on Depression, Beliefs, and Economic OutcomesPreprint
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A mental health focus to amplify climate resilience actions
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Empowering the (Extra)Ordinary
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Self-citationMeasuring depression severity in global mental health: comparing the PHQ-9 and the BDI-II
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- Authors
- Weobong, B., Weiss, H. A., McDaid, D., Singla, D. R., Hollon, S. D., Nadkarni, A., Park, A.-L., Bhat, B., Katti, B., Anand, A., Dimidjian, S., Araya, R., King, M., Vijayakumar, L., Wilson, G. T., Velleman, R., Kirkwood, B. R., Fairburn, C. G., & Patel, V.
- Affiliations
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
- London School of Economics and Political Science (GB)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Sangath (IN)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- University College London (GB)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Patel, Vikram
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLOS Medicine
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2017-09-12
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- e1002385
- ISSN
- 1549-1277 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-1676
- PMC
- PMC5595303
- OpenAlex
- W2755080056
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 13.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- The University of Bath Online Publications Store (The University of Bath) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Pure (University of Bath) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (091834)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- depression, lay counselors, primary care, treatment sustainability, cost-effectiveness, activation, India, remission, recovery, suicidal behavior, relapse prevention, social support, physical activity
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Cost-Benefit Analysis, Delivery of Health Care, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Health Promotion, Humans, India, Male, Middle Aged, Primary Health Care, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychotherapy, Treatment Outcome, Young Adult
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