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Controlling Social Stress in Virtual Reality Environments
Open accessAbstract
Virtual reality exposure therapy has been proposed as a viable alternative in the treatment of anxiety disorders, including social anxiety disorder. Therapists could benefit from extensive control of anxiety eliciting stimuli during virtual exposure. Two stimuli controls are studied in this study: the social dialogue situation, and the dialogue feedback responses (negative or positive) between a human and a virtual character. In the first study, 16 participants were exposed in three virtual reality scenarios: a neutral virtual world, blind date scenario, and job interview scenario. Results showed a significant difference between the three virtual scenarios in the level of self-reported anxiety and heart rate. In the second study, 24 participants were exposed to a job interview scenario in a virtual environment where the ratio between negative and positive dialogue feedback responses of a virtual character was systematically varied on-the-fly. Results yielded that within a dialogue the more positive dialogue feedback resulted in less self-reported anxiety, lower heart rate, and longer answers, while more negative dialogue feedback of the virtual character resulted in the opposite. The correlations between on the one hand the dialogue stressor ratio and on the other hand the means of SUD score, heart rate and audio length in the eight dialogue conditions showed a strong relationship: r(6) = 0.91, p = 0.002; r(6) = 0.76, p = 0.028 and r(6) = -0.94, p = 0.001 respectively. Furthermore, more anticipatory anxiety reported before exposure was found to coincide with more self-reported anxiety, and shorter answers during the virtual exposure. These results demonstrate that social dialogues in a virtual environment can be effectively manipulated for therapeutic purposes.
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“This significantly reduces the resource investment needed for exposure-based treatments, including time and finances (Hartanto et al., 2014; Carl et al., 2019; Emmelkamp, 2005; Miloff et al., 2016; Reeves et al., 2022; Boeldt et al., 2019; Robillard et al., 2011).”
From Virtual Reality exposure therapy in the treatment of public speaking anxiety and social anxiety disorder (2024) · cites this paper as Hartanto et al., 2014
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Emotion Recognition in Immersive Virtual Reality: From Statistics to Affective Computing
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“, positive compliments) regarding the patient’s performance, which represents extinction-related violation of expectancy (5), was also found to reduce social anxiety (15), and is an integral part of self-focused exposure therapy (16).”
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Assessing Social Anxiety Through Digital Biomarkers Embedded in a Gaming Task
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“The results of some of the included articles showed that VRET is a treatment that can work to reduce stress in treated patients (Hartanto et al., 2014; Kampmann et al., 2016).”
ResultA Comparison of Active and Passive Virtual Reality Exposure Scenarios to Elicit Social Anxiety
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The Medical Metaverse, Part 1: Introduction, Definitions, and New Horizons for Neuropsychiatry
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Beele, G., Liesong, P., Bojanowski, S., Hildebrand, K., Weingart, M., Asbrand, J., Correll, C. U., Morina, N., & Uhlhaas, P. J. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/56235 · Cited by 20
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Manchanda, N., Aggarwal, A., Setya, S., & Talegaonkar, S. (2022) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205020666230206124155 · Cited by 20
“I’d rather drink in VRChat”: Understanding Drinking in Social Virtual Reality
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Virtual Reality Interventions for Mental Health
Kothgassner, O. D., Reichmann, A., & Bock, M. M. (2023) · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2023_419 · Cited by 19
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ResultInfluentialEffects of Image Realism on the Stress Response in Virtual Reality
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“In one of them, individual differences in the sense of presence did not affect the level of social stress during the interview for a job with a virtual person [39].”
BackgroundInfluentialDas Potenzial der virtuellen Realität in der Verhaltenstherapie
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“Mittlerweile ist die VR-Technik so weit fortgeschritten, dass eine glaubwürdige soziale Interaktion simuliert werden kann [45, 46].”
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Hartanto, D., Kampmann, I. L., Nexhmedin Morina, B., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Neerincx, M. A., & Brinkman, W. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223988 · Cited by 8
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“The computer simulations of VR provide therapists with control and flexibility for the delivery of exposure therapy [19].”
Serafini, M., & Chittaro, L. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2299738 · Cited by 7
“While the studies of Hartanto et al. (2014) and Kwon et al. (2009) focused exclusively on job interview scenarios, other authors explored di ff erent scenarios but none of them addressed oral exams.”
InfluentialOwayyed, M. A., Tielman, M. L., Hartholt, A., Specht, M. M., & Brinkman, W. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2374891 · Cited by 5
“Human initiative occurs when the trainer acts as a supervisor guiding the agent and intervening when necessary, for example, if the virtual child does not exhibit the expected behaviour or if Robin wishes to control parts of the agent (e.g. Hartanto et al. 2014).”
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“These findings support the validity of the virtual model 39 .”
The Role of Speaking Anxiety on L2 English Speaking Fluency, Accuracy and Complexity
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“Therefore, receiving signs of misunderstanding or indifference as one speaks may generate stress (higher HR and self-reported anxiety levels), as one gets a negative response from an audience to one's speech (i.e., constant frowning or an unfriendly response in a dialogue) (Hartanto et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDetecting Public Speaking Stress via Real-Time Voice Analysis in Virtual Reality: A Review
Arushi, Dillon, R., Teoh, A. N., & Dillon, D. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2909-2_7 · Cited by 5
Um programa de intervenção para transtorno de ansiedade social com o uso da realidade virtual
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Kosonogov, V., Efimov, K., Rakhmankulova, Z., & Zyabreva, I. (2023) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-023-01393-w · Cited by 7
“In the study by Hartanto et al. [2014] cited above, as part of an interview scenario, the authors changed the ratio of the virtual character’s positive and negative responses as the interview progressed.”
BackgroundPan, J. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/48437 · Cited by 5
“The commonly used psychological indicators include self-reported anxiety and fear, distress, and self-confidence [33,34].”
BackgroundSterna, R., Siry, A. M., Pilarczyk, J., & Kuniecki, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.648318 · Cited by 5
“Isomorphic assumption is made in many papers, both relatively old (Meehan et al., 2002) and recent (Hartanto et al., 2014, p. 2–10; Athif et al., 2020; Gill, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodA Treatment Program for Social Anxiety Disorder by Using Virtual Reality
Perandré, H. H. T., & Haydu, V. B. (2018) · Temas em Psicologia · doi:10.9788/tp2018.2-12en · Cited by 5
“…relating to positive correlation between sense of presence and measurements of anxiety Trends Psychol., Ribeirão Preto, vol. 26, nº 2, p. 867-882 - June/2018 (see Hartanto et al., 2014; Morina et al., 2014; Powers et al., 2013; Price et al., 2011) contradict the third hypothesis mentioned above.”
BackgroundBouguettaya, A., & Aboujaoude, E. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/64494 · Cited by 5
“Meanwhile, a VR-based group therapy (with avatars representing other group members in a virtual environment) could be helpful in engaging patients with social anxiety disorder, as they could use avatars to not be “observed” [67].”
BackgroundSedghikhanshir, A., Chen, Y., Zhu, Y., Beck, M. R., & Jafari, A. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17062421 · Cited by 4
A VR Game for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Therapy
Torrão, A. R., Natário, J., Carvalho, P. S., Silva, C. M., & Silva, F. G. M. (2021) · International Conference on Graphics and Interaction (ICGI) · doi:10.1109/icgi54032.2021.9655282 · Cited by 5
Chittaro, L., & Serafini, M. (2023) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-023-16917-2 · Cited by 4
“…controlled by the experimenter with a Wizard-of-Oz technique (i.e., the user perceives a direct interaction with the virtual job interviewer, while in fact the experimenter decides and commands the responses of the virtual interviewer in real-time), can elicit different levels of anxiety [52].”
VR communication simulation with scripted dialog elicits HPA axis stress
Ban, Y., Inazawa, M., Kato, C., & Warisawa, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.1302720 · Cited by 3
“Previous studies con fi rmed that the level of ANS stress, judging from heart rate information, changes depending on the dialog feedback response (positive or negative) between humans and virtual characters (Hartanto et al., 2014).”
Giron, J., Mladenović, J., Hanrieder, M., Golland, Y., & Friedman, D. A. (2023) · International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction Workshops and Demos (ACIIW) · doi:10.1109/aciiw59127.2023.10388148 · Cited by 3
“Hartanto et al. [5] explored physiological responses in three interactive dialogue scenarios: blind date, job interview, and a neutral control condition, and report differences in reported anxiety as well as mean heart rate (HR).”
BackgroundSedghikhanshir, A., Zhu, Y., Beck, M. R., & Jafari, A. (2024) · ASCE International Conference on Computing in Civil Engineering (i3CE) · doi:10.1061/9780784485231.023 · Cited by 3
LingoVerse: virtual language learning through gamification
Špruk, N. J., Žnideršič, K., Marolt, M., & Pesek, M. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01250-w · Cited by 4
“These technologies can be used for various purposes, such as gaming, learning, therapy, and relaxation (Emmelkamp and Meyer-bröker 2021 ; Hartanto et al. 2014 ; Howard 2017 ).”
Virtual Humans in Virtual Reality Mental Health Research: Systematic Review
Wei, S., Freeman, D. H., & Rovira, A. (2025) · JMIR XR and spatial computing. · doi:10.2196/75087 · Cited by 2
“Researchers also manipulated the dialog responses (positive or negative) [57] and responsive frequency (high or low) [4] in conversation agents.”
Development of Immersive 360° Virtual Reality Videos for Intervention with Test Anxiety
Doğan, U., Üzmez, H., Dağılgan, E. B., Sarıcaoğlu, H., Sinem, A. C. A. R., & Özkaraca, O. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2434959 · Cited by 4
“Factors such as privacy (Anderson et al., 2004), cost (Miloff et al., 2016), practitioner burden (Hartanto et al., 2014), and time (Emmelkamp, 2005) also contribute to the increased use of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET), which combines elements of in-vivo exposure to improve patient…”
Kiernan, G., Kohl, P., Tas, E., Berg, F., Wolf, M., Nguyen, P.-M., Valmaggia, L., & Rus‐Calafell, M. (2025) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-025-02871-x · Cited by 2
“Manipulating social stressors in VR such as population or ethnic density or hostility [34] can influence components of social performance such as anxiety [35], fear of negative evaluation [36] and social avoidance [37].”
Interpersonal Emotion Regulation
Colombo, D., Ventura, S., & Baños, R. (2022) · Advances in logistics, operations, and management science book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-2478-0.ch010 · Cited by 2
The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality for Studying Human Behavior in Fire
Feng, X., Cui, R., & Zhao, J. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21067-4_2 · Cited by 2
“…dif fi culties, usually the speed of evacuation is much slower than the speed of smoke spreading for the long vertical evacuation distance and high population density; Third, in most cases the only escaping way is the stairs cause the elevator shaft is usually the thoroughfare of smoke [1, 5, 6].”
BackgroundGarcía-Betances, R. I. (2017) · UPM Digital Archive (Technical University of Madrid) · doi:10.20868/upm.thesis.48687 · Cited by 2
Kourtesis, P., Collina, S., Doumas, L. A. A., & MacPherson, S. E. (2021) · doi:10.36227/techrxiv.13858154.v1 · Cited by 3
You, Y., Zou, B., & Wang, C. (2024) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-2857-6.ch012 · Cited by 1
Darmová, B., Fajnerová, I., & Appel, L. (2026) · Technologies · doi:10.3390/technologies14050305
Rueda, A., Martin, J., Parkington, K. B., Perivolaris, A., Teferra, B. G., Lee, G. H., Tassone, V. K., Lin, Q., Ivanov, M., Darnell, B. C., et al. (2026) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/77818 · Cited by 1
“However, the fact that in-VR stress correlates with real-world stress further supports the finding that the VR simulation elicited stress [67,68].”
VR Technology-Based Intelligent Cognitive Rehabilitation System for Alzheimer’s Disease
Hang, Y., Ge, W., Jiang, H., Li, H., & Tan, W. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-32962-4_20 · Cited by 1
Do Distant or Colocated Audiences Affect User Activity in VR?
Terrier, R., Martin, N., Lacoche, J., Gouranton, V., & Arnaldi, B. (2020) · IFIP International Conference on Theoretical Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61983-4_1 · Cited by 2
A Virtual Reality Game as a Tool for Psychotherapy With OCD Patients
Torrão, A. R., Natário, J., Carvalho, P. S., Silva, C. M., & Silva, F. G. M. (2022) · International Journal of Creative Interfaces and Computer Graphics · doi:10.4018/ijcicg.311834 · Cited by 1
The Use of Gamification in Social Phobia
Simões-Silva, V., Maravalhas, V., Cunha, A. R., Soares, M. I., & Marques, A. J. (2020) · Advances in medical technologies and clinical practice book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7472-0.ch009 · Cited by 1
Watanave, H. A. C., & Chacón, M. F. S. (2018) · Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas (UPC) · doi:10.19083/tesis/628222 · Cited by 1
Implementations of Virtual Reality for Anxiety-Related Disorders: Systematic Review (Preprint)Preprint
Oing, T., & Prescott, J. (2018) · doi:10.2196/preprints.10965 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Hartanto, D., Kampmann, I. L., Morina, N., Emmelkamp, P. G. M., Neerincx, M. A., & Brinkman, W.-P.
- Affiliations
- Delft University of Technology (NL)
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Hartanto, Dwi
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-03-26
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- e92804
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3966821
- OpenAlex
- W2148863487
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 14.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2019-10-11)
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- TNO Repository (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Repository hosted by TU Delft Library (TU Delft) (submittedVersion)
- Research Repository (Delft University of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (655.010.207)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Keywords
- virtual reality exposure therapy, social anxiety disorder, virtual characters, anticipatory anxiety, heart rate, self-reported anxiety, speech length
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Heart Rate, Humans, Interviews as Topic, Male, Stress, Psychological, User-Computer Interface, Young Adult
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