Body condition and adrenal glucocorticoid activity affects metabolic marker and lipid profiles in captive female elephants in Thailand
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Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and physiological function, and identified mitigating management strategies to optimize health and welfare. A similar methodological approach was used in this study, which evaluated a body condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest) every other month and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] related to measures of body condition and adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS was 3-3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5-5 (very overweight); no elephants had a BCS <2. BCSs were higher in rainy and winter seasons compared to summer, with FGM, TG, HDL, LDL, and insulin also higher in the rainy and/or winter seasons (p<0.05). By contrast, TC and glucose were lowest in the rainy season. FGM measures were negatively associated with two environmental factors: temperature and rainfall, but not humidity. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TC, LDL, and HDL, and between FGM and TC, HDL, glucose, and insulin (p<0.05), whereas BCS and FGM were both negatively associated with the G:I (p<0.05). However, there was no relationship between BCS and FGM among the camp elephants. Using BCS and FGM measures as outcome variables in separate regression models, this study found high BCS and elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid profiles and metabolic status in elephants. Furthermore, more work hours/day was associated with better body condition and health measures. Thus, being overweight and exposed to factors that increase adrenal activity could adversely affect health status, requiring alterations in management for some individuals, whereas exercise appears to have a protective effect.
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The fGCM assay using a double-antibody EIA with polyclonal rabbit anti-corticosterone antibody (CJM006) was validated for Asian elephants.
“Concentrations of fGCM were determined using a double-antibody EIA with a polyclonal rabbit anti-corticosterone antibody (CJM006) validated for Asian elephants [47] and described by Norkaew et al. [46].”
From Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
A similar set of studies on tourist elephants in Thailand found problems associated with elevated stress hormones, excessive body condition and metabolic derangements, and stereotypies.
“A similar set of studies on tourist elephants in Thailand found similar problems associated with elevated stress hormones (48), excessive body condition and metabolic derangements (49), and stereotypies (50).”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [49]
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Self-citationPhysiological plasticity in elephants: highly dynamic glucocorticoids in African and Asian elephants
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Self-citationUpdate on Comparative Biology of Elephants: Factors Affecting Reproduction, Health and Welfare
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Fat mass compared to four body condition scoring systems in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
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Self-citationDevelopment of a welfare assessment tool for tourist camp elephants in Asia
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Socializing a group of male Asian elephants in a semi-captive facility in Lao PDR
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Appendix II: Elephants in Asia
Szydlowski, M. (2024) · CABI eBooks · doi:10.1079/9781800624498.app2
Measuring Elephant Health and Welfare
Szydlowski, M. (2024) · CABI eBooks · doi:10.1079/9781800624498.0005
Regulating and Monitoring the Asian Captive Elephant Industry
Ashby, G. (2025) · CABI eBooks · doi:10.1079/9781836990093.0009
Visual Body Condition Scoring for Wild African Forest Elephants ( Loxodonta cyclotis )
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Metabolic profiles of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Lao PDR and Thailand
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Behavioural welfare assessment of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand tourist camps
Jacques, I., Brotcorne, F., Brown, J. L., Thitaram, C., & Bansiddhi, P. (2026) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2026.107219
Self-citation
- Authors
- Norkaew, T., Brown, J. L., Bansiddhi, P., Somgird, C., Thitaram, C., Punyapornwithaya, V., Punturee, K., Vongchan, P., Somboon, N., & Khonmee, J.
- Affiliations
- Chiang Mai University (TH)
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Khonmee, Jaruwan
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2018-10-02
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e0204965
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6168167
- OpenAlex
- W2894912337
- Cited by
- 54
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 8
- FWCI
- 6.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ (vor)
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Thailand Research Fund (MRG5980072)
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University (002/2559)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Equine › Veterinary Equine Medical Research
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Medicine and Surgery
- Keywords
- captive elephants, body condition score, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites, lipid profile, insulin, glucose-to-insulin ratio, seasonal variation, overweight, zoo animal welfare, physical activity, temperature and precipitation effects
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Animals, Elephants, Female, Glucocorticoids, Lipids, Seasons, Thailand, Biomarkers
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